Rational Agriculture.

 21^st Century Agricultural Opportunities:

Pakistan’s Path to Prosperity:

I     = Indus Delta.      II = Southern Irrigated Plain III = Sandy Desert (a & b) IV  = Northern Irrigated Plains (a & b)    V = Barani Lands  VI = Wet Mountains VII =  Northern Dry Mountains            VIII = Western dry Mountains  IX = Dry Western Plateau     X   =  Sulaiman Piedmont 

Map of Pakistan Agri-Ecological Zones.1

1  Regional Soil Survey Report, Rawalpindi Area, Soil Survey of Pakistan.

Introduction:

Climate Change Adaption:2

Pakistan is expected to be one of the most affected of the countries in South Asia by climate change.3 With 45% of the labor force employed in the agricultural sector and 24% of national GDP deriving from agriculture,4 the resilience of agricultural production is of high importance to the development of Pakistan’s economy. One adaptation could be to change to the time that crop planting takes place. For instance, to counter rising temperatures, farmers could shift planting to cooler times of the year.5 Similarly, changes in long term precipitation patterns would mean that it would be optimal for farmers to plant seeds earlier or later, depending on when the seasonal rains arrive. Another important adaptation strategy is changing the variety or type of crop grown. For instance, a farmer facing an increased likelihood of drought may switch to faster maturing varieties of the same crop or may could switch into a different crop that is more tolerant to lower water availability.6 Farmers may also change the input mix they apply to crops in response to past or expected climate change. A shift in temperature or precipitation patterns may make it optimal to alter the amount of productive inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides or water that are applied to crops. The next group of adaptations is the adoption of soil and water conservation technologies. Increased temperatures and more erratic rainfall may have significant impacts on state of both soil and water in Pakistan. Higher temperatures are likely to increase the rate at which water is lost from the soil, meaning that farmers will have to exert more effort into maintaining soil moisture. In addition, increased heavy rainfall would increase the amount of soil erosion placing greater emphasis on the need to invest in techniques lessen these impacts. Increases in temperature will decrease wheat yields in arid, semiarid and sub-humid zones, although increases in temperature could increase yields in humid areas. High summer temperatures are already experienced across rice growing areas, the effects of increased temperatures are projected to harm rice production as temperatures get more extreme.7 According to ITC (2011), Pakistan was the world’s fourth largest cotton producer in 2009-10. However, despite the importance of cotton as a major cash crop in the economy, its growth is limited by the already high summer temperatures that occur during the summer growing season. Further heightened temperatures brought on by climate change would place greater stress on cotton growth.8 Cotton yields are likely to be adversely affected by climate change in the Punjab. Specifically, there is evidence that institutional features such as credit, land tenure, and the presence of middlemen affect both the adaptation decision and productivity of farmers. The good news is that the affects of Climate Change can be overcome provided there is a paradigm shift in the thinking of our Research and Extension Officialdom. This paper will outline methods of overcoming drought and heat stress through drought proofing; Crop Health Therapy and Conservation Irrigation like Sub-Soil Irrigation (Reticulation).

2 Crop productivity and adaptation to climate change in Pakistan. Center for Climate Change Economics and Policy. An ESRC Research Center. 

3 Stocker et al., 2013 

4 Government of Pakistan, 2010 

5 Sultana et al., 2009 

6 Lobell and Burke, 2010

7 Siddiqui et al., 2014 

8 Siddiqui et al. 2014

 Organics; GMOs; Biotechnology; Transgenics; Super Organics; Smart Breeding; Geonomics; DNA Markers; BigAg Monopolies; Molecular Biology; Transgenomics; Apomixis; Disease Resistance; Drought Tolerance; More Nutrition; Better Quality and Quantity Food; Environmental Degradation & Protection; Biodiversity; Soil & Water Conservation; Market Conditions and a host of other issues confront the Bioenvironmental Manager. Harsh words and extreme stands compounded by a lack of Conflict Resolution Bodies or Measures, assail the manager and she/ he is forced to take refuge in one or other camp in a highly fractured and voluble mess of conflicting ideas. However, there is but one absolute Truth or many compromise paths that take due cognizance of all points of view but come to rational conclusions. Where does all this leave Sustainable and Sustained Development Practioneers? Hopelessly frustrated by display of emotions where pragmatism and rational thought is required. Illegal funding of opponents to support the cause of vested and Particular Interest Groups further compounds the problem. Big money successfully uses media to perplex and obfuscate issues in order to maintain a highly questionable Status Quo. Of course Corruption, Nepotism and Resistance to Change are the Big 3 hurdles that faithfully lie in waiting to frustrate many a noble cause! Where does this leave the malnourished, sick, homeless; unemployed and poverty stricken? Continued anguish and acute deprivation is their lot whilst pseudo intellectuals and armchair idealists do their best to ensure continuity to exploitation.

There is no villain versus hero; there is no black and white. Instead there are many shades of gray that shift their hue and saturation levels on an almost continuous basis. Today’s villains can be tomorrow’s heroes and vice versa.  Rather than bewail our sorry fate, it might serve some purpose to highlight the issues and arrive at rational conclusions in order to impact malnourishment and ensure its eradication. Issues: Do we not realize that agriculture is not a natural phenomenon! Replacing profuse biodiversity by single variety crops that have been domesticated and bred for desirable genetic traits or Smartly bred or Genetically Modified all lie in the same class of manipulating Nature to serve human needs. Increasing awareness has led to balancing human needs and those of the environment and all other life forms. This balance is important and extremely important! The central issue of safe and sustainable agriculture to feed a growing population is affected by many external factors. These include politics; materialism; vested interests; negative as opposed to proactive attitudes; resistance to change; incompetence and lack of vision; selfishness and greed; sloth and indifference as well as downright meanness. In Agriculture entire ecosystems are plowed under increasing susceptibility to soil erosion; encouraging pests; compacting the ground; leaching nutrients; wasting precious water resources; emitting green house gasses; requiring deadly herbicides/ pesticides for protection and consuming fossil fuels for tractors and pumps, thereby leading to toxic emissions of fumes. All this results in severe disruption and destabilization of the ecosystem and produces food that is laden with toxic residue that leads directly to creating medical problems for the consumer. As we eat for survival there is no point in producing food in a manner that negatively impacts the very survival that we are seeking. We must Nurture Nature because Nature Nurtures us The Green Revolution increased yields and thus put off the scepter of famine from many a 3rd World Country. However, this revolution unwittingly fostered the pollution of the environment by using unstabalized chemical fertilizers, which, in turn led to the heavy use of pesticides. With growing knowledge and a body of evidence to spur them on, Agri Scientists applied their ingenuity to overcome these problems while maintaining and even increasing yields. Some alarmists pressed panic buttons and advocated return to natural farming; a misnomer as there is nothing natural about farming. This gave rise to Organic Farming, which name is used to include the most unscientific of practices including the use of raw manure and resultant chemical ill-affects that are similar to that of unstabalized chemical fertilizers (excessive nitrate nitrogen build up) and lead to pest infestations (Chemical Trail – Chemitaxi for crawling insects and build up of excessive amino acids to attract flying pests). In reviewing all the prattle about modern Agriculture it has become obvious to the author that we are confusing the issue to no end whatsoever. It is undeniable, especially for a Pakistani, that the Green Revolution saved millions from starvation. However, it is also undeniable that this revolution has polluted the environment. The rational recourse was to apply human ingenuity and develop inputs that do not harm the environment and at the same time provide the nutrition required by a plant to enable commercial exploitation that meets the needs of growing populations. The axiom adopted by the Swiss Development Corporation is entirely commendable and needs to be supported. Sustainable Development that is Economically Sound; Ecologically Safe and Socially Just: A point that is being missed by almost all those who have so volubly contributed to the Agricultural debate concerns Plant Nutrition. All plants, whether they are: 

 Wild plants supported by Nature. 

 Organically grown plants arising from pre-tech, smartly bred or genetically modified seed varieties;

 Pre-tech, smartly bred or genetically modified seeds supported by artificial fertilizers of the unstabalized variety;  

 Pre-tech, smartly bred or genetically modified seeds supported by modern, hi-tech, environmentally safe inputs and organics. 

 When we learn that the use of uncomposted manure will result in almost the same dangers to the environment as unstabalized fertilizers and give rise to pest infestations similar to them, we realize that extremist greenies and champions of the Green Revolution are actually riding the same horse. The advocates of Genetically Modified Seeds, who fail to realize that these seeds often need more nutrition then their unsophisticated counterparts due to greater genetic potential, further compound this issue. This extra nutrition is not being derided, as it is definitely cost effective as a result of improved yields. Rather, the fact that extra unstabalized or misconceived organic fertilizer will only add to the Earth’s burden of human caused pollution. 

Let us outline our surmises: 

 Organic Agriculture is much more than the use of manure. Compost is an essential part of Organic Agriculture and is indispensable to Agriculture of any kind. This is due to its primary advantage of being an excellent and often vital soil amendment. However, even the best organic agriculture cannot produce sufficient food for the World’s growing population. 

 Use of unstabalized or toxic chemicals has to be banned immediately in order to reverse their deleterious effects. 

 Complete, safe and rational plant nutrition makes efficient use of the genetic potential of any seed, be it pre-tech, domesticated and bred over the centuries; hybrid seed; smartly bred seed (using gene mapping) or genetically modified seed. 

 Plants raised on complete nutrition (one that caters to all of its requirements) are better able to fight disease and combat adverse climate and other Negative Growth Factors. 

 Genetically modified seed will give rise to the same problems as any other type of seed if Plant Management Systems are not efficient; in accordance to the plant’s requirements or environmentally safe. 

 Increased yields in accordance with genetic potential; increased stress and disease resistance; denial of pest help that arises from the use of unstabalized and unsafe Plant Nutrition; environment friendly inputs are all due to Complete and Safe 21st century Plant Nutrition. 

 Introduction of Genetically Modified Seeds without introduction of safe inputs will add to rather than relieve associated problems.

The question arises whether such Plant Nutrition exists or not? The answer is a resounding YES! Thus the debate should primarily revolve around Plant Nutrition. Careful examination will reveal that both organic and green revolution agriculture will be knocked out from scientific debate when it comes down to feeding the World’s starving millions in a sustainable manner. We cannot revert to pre-science agriculture and yet feed the world; we can no longer ignore the threat to our environment by irrational agriculture AND we cannot afford unregulated science due to the ability to cause irreparable or irreversible damage to the world. By this we mean only inbuilt safety and monitoring mechanisms to prevent harm due to indifference, incompetence or greed. Are the environmentalists not aware that the real and most important issue is Plant Nutrition and not Seed Manipulation! If that is the case then God help the environment. It is my guess that they are radicals and socialists who are opposed to Capitalism and Multi National Corporations (MNCs). It is Big Ag that is the target and not GEMs. Unfortunately BigAg holds patents upon the technology and that is causing all the fall out. However there is very little technical basis for the controversy. I hope to prove that correct and complete Plant Nutrition can, not only serve to meet the growing demand for food but also overcome the related environmental problems. Further Smart Breeding and Genetic Engineering with requisite Oversight Legislation and close monitoring is very much in the interests of humanity at large and the entire Biosphere. There is a strong requirement for R&D in Artificial Photosynthesis and Biosynthesis for Food Security. Over 800 million people around the world still go hungry every day; half of them are suffering from severe malnourishment, according to the World Bank. The world’s population continues to expand and the UN estimates that the global population will cross the 8 billion mark by 2025. In addition, a 1997 World Bank report found that the per capita acreage of cultivated land supporting food production dropped by almost 50 percent between 1961 and 1997. This figure is expected to fall another 40 percentage points or more by 2050. At the same time, by 2025 some 3 billion people in 52 nations—about 40 percent of the projected global population—will face chronic water shortages, according to the UN. Background: Life is perceived as a three-dimensional web, moving along a time path as the fourth dimension. Complex and interdependent relationships exist between various organic and inorganic elements and compounds including higher life forms. Plants alone have the capacity of capturing the energy from the sun and using it to store this energy as food or fuel while producing Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide as by-products. Indeed the various essential nutrient elements required by humans are made available from their inorganic mineral forms, to humans, through plants or plant consuming animals. Plants do not consume organic matter from the soil. This is a 200 years old concept that predates the discovery of the plant’s requirements of mineral nutrition. In 1860, Julius Von Sachs, a German plant physiologist, grew perfectly normal plants in a solution of ten minerals without any soil at all. Justus Von Liebeg, a German teacher of Agricultural Chemistry, applied his knowledge of Chemistry to Agriculture and laid the foundation of Chemical Fertilizers. The Green Revolution used these chemical fertilizers to great affect and dramatically increased yields which, when combined with new hybrid seeds, ensured food for millions who would have starved without this great benefit. The birth of the Environment Movement and with increasing knowledge and breakthroughs in many fields resulted in a growing awareness of humanities interdependence with the eco systems that they inhabit. Analysis showed the flaws and ill affects of chemical fertilizers in the forms that they were being used. More responsible scientists and an increasingly influential Green Lobby created the need to overcome these problems. In 1997, Dr. Jerry Stoller, a German American Scientist, introduced the Stoller Advantage of complete Plant Nutrition to us in Pakistan. In answer to a request for better seed he stressed the fact that we are not utilizing even 40% of the genetic potential of what we already have. His argument was that hormones drive the characteristics of a plant, not fertilizers. The hormone balance of a plant dictates its growth characteristics. Nutrients are used to derive these hormones. Weather and its extremes of heat and drought compounded by insects and disease, restrict genetic potential utilization to 35 - 40%. Complete Plant Nutrition pushes this efficiency up.

 

 Here a big gulf and divide appeared with increasingly extremist stands being taken on both sides. I refer to Organic versus Chemical Agriculture. Here Chemical has come to mean toxic and dangerous even though the origin of all life forms is chemical. An offshoot of Genetically Modified Organisms appeared on the scene and was quickly speculated upon and patented by BigAg, which is treated as the enemy by the Greenies. Many issues unrelated to Agriculture lie behind the scene. It would serve to enlist the various technologies being used or being developed for Agriculture.9 Our ancestors used Plant breeding in the field for desirable genetic characteristics and developed the plants that we use today. The GEMS controversy is also covered.10 

9 Encyclopedia Britannica 

10 The Debate over Genetically Engineered Food, Microsoft: Rick Weiss is a science writer for the Washington Post. 

 Wild Plants and the Prehistoric discovery that they were a source of food. 

 Domestication by 9000 BC in Turkey, Irrigated Agriculture in Palestine by 6500 BC and 6000 BC in the Indus Valley. 

 Hybridization by crossbreeding of sexually compatible varieties for increased yields; resistance to insects, pathogens, nematodes and fungi; resistance to adverse climate conditions etc. begun by 5000 BC. 

 1650 – 1780 Chemistry evolves to pure science: Robert Boyle – Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, the father of Modern Chemistry. 

 19th Century Science develops structural organic chemistry despite scientific misconception that transformations undergone by matter in living organisms are not subject to the chemical and physical laws that apply to inanimate substances. 

 1828 Friedrich Wohler synthesizes urea, an organic compound, in the laboratory. 

 1840 Justus Von Liebeg publishes works on the great chemical cycles of nature. Points out that animals and humans would disappear from the earth but for photosynthesizing plants, which produce the complex organic compounds, required for their nutrition. 

 1860s Louis Pasteur proves that yeasts and bacteria cause fermentation and in some cases diseases. 

 1869 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) isolated from nuclei of pus cells. 

 1877, ferments designated as enzymes. 

 1897, German Chemist E. Buchner proves that fermentation can occur in a press juice of yeast and thus reduces life process of living cells by analysis to a non-living system of enzymes. 

 1913 Haber – Bosch synthesis of Ammonia to lay basis for N Fertilizer. 

 1926 first pure crystalline enzyme is isolated and identified as urease, subsequently this and many other enzymes proved to be proteins recognized as high-molecular weight chains of subunits called amino acids. 

 1929 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) isolated from muscle and demonstrated that its production is associated with oxidative processes in the cell. 

 1935 radioactive isotopes of chemical elements used to trace pathway of substances in plants and animals by two U.S. chemists, R. Schoenheimer and D. Rittenberg. 

 1930s – 1940s, Sites of metabolic reactions by ingenious technical advances in the studies of organs, tissue slices, cell mixtures, individual cells and finally individual cell constituents such as nuclei, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes and membranes. 

 1940, F.A. Lipmann proposes that ATP is the common form of energy exchange in many cells. 

 1944 significance of DNA as genetic material revealed. 

 By 1954, Watson and Crick proposed the double helix structure of DNA 

 1962 saw the publication by Rochelle Carson of “Silent Spring” revealing the extensive ecological damage caused by Agricultural Chemicals. 

 1965 Green Revolution using Chemical fertilizers; Hybrid seed; other Agricultural Chemical and irrigation resulting in enormous yield increases but reducing cultigens in use. Also flood irrigation and unstabalized fertilizers compounded by inefficient delivery to the plant led to environmental pollution through Water Logging; Salinity; Release of Nitrous Oxide through Volatilization (Green House Gas); Leaching of Nitrates into Ground water; Escape of Phosphorus into surface water to change plant populations by encouraging non fish food plants and restriction of fish food (Eutrophication). However, over a 30-year period the calories intake by every human being in developing countries increased by 30 per cent. 

 Wide crossing of sexually incompatible plants; Embryo Rescue (removal of embryo after fertilization to be fostered in the laboratory); Plant Mutation through chemicals and radiation. 

 Complete Plant Nutrition involving pure minerals in eco friendly and stabilized compositions; Seed Coating, Foliar Application of Liquid Nutrients, Banding and Micro placement of Nutrients to enhance efficiency and restrict availability to undesirable species. 

 Soil and Water Conservation. 

 Anther & Tissue Culture for cloning plants. 

 Recombinant DNA (rDNA); bioengineering by surgically altering a plants genome leading to known and predictable genetic changes. 

 Widespread controversy surrounds bioengineering and agriculture starting with:

 • Possible human health risks of genetically modified food and whether every possible allergen in an engineered food could possibly be tested in advance.

 • Crops engineered for herbicide resistance might create “super weeds” by cross- pollinating with wild, weedy relatives growing nearby. Cross-pollination could give those weeds unprecedented resistance to the very weed killers that farmers were counting on to control pest plants.

 • Experts predicted that plants endowed with the toxin genes might accelerate the evolution of “superbugs”—insects resistant to insecticide.

 • Many critics worry that the new agricultural biotechnology will give a handful of giant, profit-driven companies too much economic power over farmers.

 • Economic and ecological costs and benefits of these crops appear to vary, depending on the region being studied and local weather patterns in any given year.

 • Competing studies in 1999 offered contradictory answers to the question of whether genetically modified crops actually bring increased crop yields or environmental benefits, such as reductions in pesticide use.

 • Poor farmers most in need of improved crop varieties are typically the least able to afford the high prices of patented seeds. Most of these farmers are in no position to promise they will not save some of the precious seeds from year to year.

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), a global treaty that emerged from the June 1992 UN Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The CBD called upon signatory nations to develop a “biosafety protocol.” In January 2000 more than 130 nations signed the first such protocol in Montreal, Canada. The agreement leaves many issues unresolved. But it offers at least a glimmer of hope that developed and developing nations will find a way to take advantage of the promising technology without posing undue risks to human health or the environment. 

 Natural hormones for changing genetic expression of a plant to combat adverse climate conditions and affect micro management of the Plant’s Growth Stages in order to ensure greater utilization of genetic potential to raise yields and improve quality.11 

 Smart breeding through gene mapping and marking (Transgenomics). 

 Apomixis; to inculcate cloning through the seed rather than vegetatively in order to make plants produce genetically identical offspring. 

 Bio engineered, smartly bred or Transgenomics seed to enhance human nutrition via introduction of higher quality protein; lower levels of saturated fats; increased vitamins and minerals; reduction of natural toxins and allergens. 

 Delivery of life-saving vaccines via the plant. 

 Artificial Photosynthesis. 

 Artificial Bio Synthesis of Food.

11 Dr. Jerry Stoller, Stoller Chemicals Inc. 

Nutrition: 

The Green Revolution increased yields and thus put off the scepter of famine from many a 3rd World Country. However, this revolution unwittingly fostered the pollution of the environment by using unstabalized chemical fertilizers, which, in turn led to the heavy use of pesticides. With growing knowledge and a body of evidence to spur them on, Agri Scientists applied their ingenuity to overcome these problems while maintaining and even increasing yields. Some alarmists pressed panic buttons and advocated return to natural farming; a misnomer as there is nothing natural about farming. This gave rise to Organic Farming, which name is used to include the most unscientific of practices including the use of raw manure and resultant chemical ill-effects that are similar to that of unstabalized chemical fertilizers (excessive nitrate nitrogen build up) and lead to pest infestations (Chemical Trail – Chemitaxi for crawling insects and build up of excessive amino acids to attract flying pests). 

The Natural World is subject to certain Laws and patterns that serve to maintain a balance. This balance has led to evolutionary adaptation and development of life forms that are at the same time dependant upon Nature or the Eco System that they inhabit in the overall Environment as well as interdependent upon each other for survival. However, there exist numerous and often deleterious affect causing human and pest interventions that must be rationally and sustainably managed on a sustained or self sustaining basis in order to perpetuate the Bioenvironment and avoid breakdown. Homo Technicalis has the ability to either nurture or destroy this delicate balance. Only complete understanding and careful monitoring can ensure correct and proper Bioenvironmental Management. The existing Food Chains and Webs need to be reinforced and replenished in order to ensure health and continued functioning. The vital human requirements for food, water and air cannot be left to the mercy of ruthless, short sighted and short-term exploitation that leaves death, destruction and permanent loss in its wake! This fact is a dire necessity and can no longer be held in abeyance. Nor is it productive to enter into useless and repetitive argumentations. International and National Politics cannot be allowed to subvert the achievement of Eco Stability. We must realize that the “enemy” does not exist in other Countries, nor do they adhere to “other” faiths, nor yet are they of “different” races. The enemies of humanity belong to every faith and come in different colors. The so-called advanced, developed or civilized world is just as replete with unscrupulous, materialistic, greedy, viscous individuals as the 3rd World Countries. The garb of civilization, piety or affluence does not serve to subdue the reptilian “claw that lurks within a paw covered by an outstretched hand” which is the phylo genetic patrimony of humanity. A factor common to all of the before mentioned agricultural developments and indeed part of them is Plant Nutrition. In fact the basis of the controversy is the deleterious affects of Plant Nutrition as introduced by the Green Revolution. Rather than only highlight the positive results accrued by this revolution, it would serve humanity to take lessons from past mistakes or oversights and move to correct them. This does not take from venerable reputations but rather reinforces them by provision of continuity rather than termination. A greater and deeper understanding of organics and their inorganic building blocks is badly required. Organics are high-energy-level compounds that have arisen due to energy input (usually from the sun) to low-energy-level inorganic elements and or compounds. Thus low-energy-level inorganic materials arise to constitute the parts of high-energy-level organic compounds and entities of progressively higher life forms that, in turn are subject to reversion to low-energy-level inorganic materials on decomposition and/ or death. With this as a fact there is absolutely no basis for an organic versus inorganic debate what so ever. The debate should revolve around the safety of the introduction by humans of man-made materials into the environment. In case they are not safe then safer materials need to be developed and unsafe materials need to be banned immediately or whenever such safe materials are available. It is an inescapable fact that all life forms require nutrition to maintain life. Modern research has shown that a life form must change its physical constituents quite rapidly in order to meet its growth and existence requirements. Indeed we require a constant supply of all kinds of atoms, molecules and compounds in order to replace what is being lost. The environment provides us with air and water to fulfill our need and indeed that of all life forms with Oxygen, Carbon and Hydrogen which make up over 90% of the life form’s body, be it human, animal or plants. Apart from this there are a number of essential raw materials required, this placed is between eighteen to forty for human beings. Of these eighteen are most commonly required, i.e. fifteen apart from the three already mentioned. These elements are the same for humans, animals and plants. As yet however, only plants are able to synthesize these raw materials into assimilable forms and make them available to humans and animals on an economic scale. There are six classes of nutrients for humans; of these four supply indispensable building materials. These are water; protein; minerals and vitamins. The other two are classed as energy foods (carbohydrates and fats, oils) and are interchangeable whereas the previous four are not. Just as living organisms shed their components and replace them on a continuous basis thereby consuming energy so too does Nature constantly consume energy through breakdown of organic matter, weathering process in the soil, the hydrothermal cycle and mobility of substances in soil, water, and air. Many dynamic and interdependent chains and cycles exist within the Biosphere as elements are cycled and recycled, are consumed and/ or replenished, subjected to output losses due to lack of input: output balance. Stable Eco Systems are those wherein minerals (essential elements) and particulate material are retained by recycling them within its constituent sub-systems. It is important to note that rebuilding of this dynamic recycling, in case of disruption, can take from 60 to 80 years and longer depending upon the severity of the disruption. Secondly, it has taken millions of years for these Eco Systems to evolve. For instance soil that has been either deposited or built up in millions of years can be lost within a few years if mismanaged. In a human adapted Agricultural Eco System the cycling of nutrients involves: 

 Uptake by Plants. 

 Storage within the Organisms. 

 Harvest removal. 

 Return to Soil via:

 • Dead Organic matter.

 • Through inculcation of:

 o Plant Residue.

 o Manure/ Compost.

 o Human Agency Nutrient Provision.

 • Precipitation Within natural Eco Systems, nutrient flow is conserved and input and loss is usually of small quantities (especially in terrestrial systems) compared with the volume, which circulates within the system. In artificial or human intervened systems, minerals which originated in underlying rock strata or through sediment deposit: 

 Becomes part of Vegetation. 

 Vegetation regularly harvested and removed. 

Thus large quantities of minerals are removed. If Compost or well-rotted Farm Yard Manure is inculcated in the soil, quantities of these minerals are returned to the soil and fertility is replenished to the extent of addition. Since Farm Yard Manure does not contain sufficient minerals to replace those removed, unless prohibitively large quantities of rarely available manure are added. Even when composted with biodegradable organic material, the output: input ratio is not balanced. Thus agricultural soils face continuous depletion (Nutrient Mining). This is compounded by run off and leaching losses due to poor cultural practices. Thirdly, over use of deadly pesticides and herbicides tend to kill or eliminate useful biota in the form of microbes and fungi. These biota are of vital importance as they mineralize organic material and provide them to plants and other energy pathways within the Eco System. Therefore if uptake is value 5, retention is 1 and return is 2 then Nutrient Mining output: input ratio will be 5:3 representing a net loss of 2 per crop leading to declining fertility. When organic material and biota are absent or deficient then the even 2 return is not, or partially mineralized and will not be available to the plants. Thus our Nutrient Reserves are soon exhausted. If cultivated land is managed correctly, nutrient reserves can be replenished and fertility levels can be increased. For example nutrient loss from the Eco System is minimized by presence of plants that hold soil through their roots and thus prevent erosion; convert water run-off to evapo-transpiration and restrict leaching losses; provide shade and reduce rates of decomposition of organic matter so that the supply of soluble ions available for loss via run-off is lessened. If Sufficient Nutrients and Compounds are Provided to the Plant, Uptake from the Reserve is Curtailed and Soil Fertility is Maintained. These nutrients etc. must be in a chemical form that makes it available to the plant and must be stable and safe for the environment. Thus we see that provision of Plant Nutrition and Correct Cultural Practices are of prime importance. These are common to all seed; often critical for hybrid or Genetically Modified Organisms. If either of these two is not rational the result is poor quality and quantity produce as well as more susceptibility of the plant to Negative Growth Factors and pest attacks. Thus we see that humans require minerals either directly from plants or from animals dependent upon plants (meat, milk, eggs etc.). It is the human, animal or plant that makes organic compounds out of basic essential building materials. Some of these organic compounds are known as hormones, which are described as chemical messengers that excite one response or the other in the body’s organs or tissues. Plants normally obtain their mineral requirements from the soil and the ability of a soil to provide the proper elements and compounds, in proper amounts and in proper balance for growth of specified plants when temperature and other factors are favorable is what determines soil fertility (proper means in the ionic forms commonly absorbed by the plant). With favorable temperature and availability of moisture, a plant’s seed will swell and enzymes/ hormones become active making the carbohydrates etc. present in the endosperm move towards the embryo. This leads to growth of the shoot and roots. When the root system extends into the soil coupled with emergence of leaves and initiation of photosynthesis, a plant is capable of attaining its nutrient requirements. At this period and due to the fact that phosphorus is particularly required at this stage of growth and also because phosphorus is rare and if present is immobile in the soil and since root systems are not yet extensive, a plant destined for consumption is managed by provision of soluble phosphorus fertilizer in a chemical form that makes it available to the plant and should be ecologically safe. This phosphorus can be derived from manure where it arose from plant material ingested by the animal that fed upon it. Or from compost where it is more abundantly available due to composition of 30 parts bio degradable plant material and 1 part manure to form a 20:1 Carbon: Nitrogen ratio. However, the problem of ensuring that the phosphorus ion is immediately available to the seedling remains. To band large quantities of manure or compost near the seedling or provide it independently, either through banding or foliar sprays while using compost or manure for its primary beneficial roles such as: 

 Serves as the principal storehouse for anions such as nitrates, sulfates, borates, molybdates and chlorides that are essential for plant growth. 

 Increases CEC (Cation Exchange Capacity) of soil by a factor of 5 to 10 times that of clay. 

 Acts as a buffer against rapid changes caused by acidity; alkalinity; salinity; pesticides and toxic heavy metals. 

 Supplies food for beneficial soil organisms like earthworms, symbiotic Nitrogen fixing bacteria and mycorrihize (beneficial fungus). 

 Serves as recycling sink for organic waste and green manures (animal manure, crop residues, household refuse and leguminous plants collected within and outside the farm) and thus keeps environment clean and hygienic. 

 Softens the soil by introducing fibrous matter. 

 Increases soil water retention capacity. 

 Makes plants more resistant to pests and disease through improved nutrient availability and uptake, resulting in healthier plants with strong immune systems. 

 Prevents soil acidification. 

By either seed coating (not sufficient due to limited amount of nutrients that can be coated) or foliar application, the target plant is the sole beneficiary and weeds or other undesirable plant species do not receive the nutrient. Secondly, loss by leaching or run-off is reduced to almost zero. This is more so if the nutrients are chelated {derived from the Greek ‘Chelae’ or Claw and used to denote covering an element with organic material to provide ionic bonding affect of cation: anion (positive & negative ion attraction)}. The chelated nutrient ions bond to the leaf and stem surface and resist being washed off till they have a reasonable chance of being absorbed by the plant’s tissue. If we ensure that the nutrient element that we are providing to our crops are not dangerous to the environment and other life forms. If we provide the crops with these safe nutrients in a responsible manner and if these nutrients are sufficiently stable and do not decompose to toxic material either through hydrolysis or volatilization. Then there is no point what so ever in deriding their use. Von Liebeg’s Law states that the yield of a crop is limited by the nutrient in least supply. This means that supply of whichever of the essential building materials is restricted in terms of quantities required by the plant, it will restrict the yield. This is compared to a bucket with holes for various nutrients placed in accordance to amounts required. As these amounts are met the hole is plugged and nutrient intake increases to the next critical nutrient element required by the plant. Maximum genetic potential yields are achieved only when all holes are plugged. Of course soil, management systems; cultural practices; climate, environment, mutual antagonism or stimulation between various minerals and Negative Growth Factors play their own critical role in determining yields. 

If there are enough nutrients available for the following yields, total yield will be determined by the least available nutrient in terms of the plant’s requirements, 

The yield will be restricted to 150 Kgs. It is important to note that this is true for crops of all kinds, under all management systems and independent of source or manner of derivation of the plant. In other words this inescapable fact holds true for Organic; Super Organic; Smartly Bred or Genetically Modified Organisms. Therefore our Management requirement is to provide enough environmentally safe and available forms of nutrients to fulfill the needs of the plant. This ensures achievement of genetic potential apart from other factors. These other factors such as water; climate; cultural practices and control of Negative Growth Factors (NGF), are also managed in order to achieve maximum genetic potential (MPG). The presence of nutrients in compost or manure is negligible as compared to an intensive crop’s requirements. Intensive cropping means intensive mining of finite supplies of nutrients available in any given soil. As we all know, soils vary greatly in nutrient availability, and inculcation of compost or manure is one way of replenishing these nutrient supplies. However, we have seen that there are inefficient and do not contain enough nutrients to fulfill the plant’s requirements. Added to this is the fact that particular nutrient deficient soils will not have sufficient amounts of that nutrient to cycle into the food chain and will eventually not only restrict the crop’s yield but will also not be available to the humans and animals that feed upon plants grown on such soils. If this element is lacking it will not find its way either into manure or compost and the cycle of deficiency will be reinforced. To overcome this, the element has to be obtained externally. Secondly, and more importantly, it is prohibitively expensive to analyze and update soil analysis for all elements required by a plant. On the other hand how much of each nutrient is required by a particular species of plant for a given yield is known to science. Does it not then make sense to provide all these nutrients in a free feeding mode and allow the plant to uptake its requirements itself? Raising the soil’s fertility gradually and thus reducing external nutrient requirements can utilize left over nutrients. It is important to note that most of these nutrients are required and supplied as trace elements. Thus toxic build up is not a factor at all. Apart from Chloride and Nickel, which help a plant to use urea, a plant needs at least 17 nutrient elements critical for its survival. Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen constitute over 95% of a plant’s needs and are supplied from the air and water. The rest are taken from the soil. Soil pH determines tying down or availability of Nutrients and 6.8 pH is the break point as nutrients except Molybdenum and Chlorine are more easily absorbed in Acidic Soil. Foliar feeding of essential nutrients is firstly, more efficient (70% foliar absorption compared with 30% soil borne uptake, radio isotope analysis). Secondly, the mutual antagonism/ stimulation between various essential nutrient elements is overcome. Roots act as a transport system for raw and inorganic nutrient elements to the leaves where they are converted into food and sent to the roots for storage. It has been determined that foliar feeding is six times more efficient for Clay Loam and Organic soils and 20 times more efficient for sandy loams. Loss by leaching is 2% for foliar (chelated nutrients) and 70% for soil. There are some critical periods for plant development wherein growth and yield increase with increased availability of nutrients that can be used by the plant. Foliar feeding with correct combinations of nutrients as required by the plant in different growth periods will provide increased growth and vigor resulting in increased yields, weather proofing and disease resistance. Another factor that increases yields is the prolonging of root life after flowering in order to provide longer time for grain/ fruit to fill. In order to do this we need to keep the root growing vegetatively during the early period and after flowering we need to elongate the period of root life.

This done by hormones. The hormone balance of a plant is responsible for dictating its response to environmental factors. Changes in climate affect hormone balance. This is more in some varieties and less in others. This is dictated by the genetics of a plant. Down through the centuries humans have domesticated and then bred plants for desirable genetic traits. These genetic traits need to be tapped by the plant and this is only possible through the support of complete plant nutrition. However, genetic expression of potential can be modified to weatherproof a plant and ensure that climate change has less impact upon yields. 

 Plant diseases are directly related to climate, if the crop is weather proofed it can reduce the use of costly pesticides. 

 Root growth direction is another hormonal response. Dry conditions after seed germination result in hormone induced downwards growth of roots to tap moisture. Wet conditions at germination promote lateral development. If a plant is treated with Rooting Hormones it will respond by downwards root development irrespective of moisture conditions. 

 Direction of carbohydrate flow is hormone controlled. During the plant’s Vegetative Growth Period, plants build up their root systems. Nutrients are absorbed in the lead ¼ inch of new root hair tissue. Root hormones are also formed here. Any root tissue over 14 days old is unable to either form new hormones or absorb nutrients. Thus healthy growth demands continuous root growth. 

 Hormones produced in the root tip primarily determine a plant’s disease resistance. 

 Availability of Nitrogen in abundance, as is practiced in Pakistan, at the vegetative stage causes vigorous early plant growth. However, it will cause rapid root deterioration during the reproductive stage and lead to plant death. Thus too much Nitrogen during the vegetative stage upsets the hormone balance and causes excessive formation of those hormones, which are produced in the growing points above ground. This makes the plant top heavy; subject to lodging and will have negative impact on production. There being fewer stolons and tubers in potatoes; earlier flower and fruit abortion and less disease resistance. 

During the vegetative stage, if soluble Ca and B are supplied to a plant the negative affects of excessive N can be controlled. During the reproductive stage, carbohydrates are altered from the root and directed towards the growing points above ground and reproductive tissue. This results in more ethylene and putrescence causing more disease; physiological and stress problems as well as more aborting of fruit and flowers; premature ripening and early plant death. Ethylene and putrescence are bad hormones or hormones like products, the plant’s defense against these hormones are other hormones produced by the roots and Ca stored in the Cystol. It is possible to change the genetic expression of a plant so that bad levels are minimized. This severely curtails yields unless shift of carbohydrates from the root is modified. Each day a plant can be kept alive at this stage adds 4% to yields. Carbohydrates and Proteins are primarily formed in the leaves and then transferred to the stalks and stems. The vegetative growing points use carbohydrates from stalks, stems and branches. If a leaf has enough K, Mg and ABA (hormone), the leaves are enabled to continuously replenish carbohydrates. If, however, there is too much IAA (hormone) and Nitrate form of N, the leaves are unable to keep up the supply of carbohydrates. Allelopathy is caused by accumulation of toxins, produced by the roots of a plant, in its neighboring plant. This reduces fruitfulness but can be controlled with hormones. It is possible to treat plants so that they are immune to disease or develop the capacity in a plant to repair itself after being infected. Nematodes attack plant roots and introduce toxins into the plant. It is possible to increase a plant’s resistance to nematode toxins. 

Crop Health Therapy:

Producers claim weather has the greatest impact on their crop yield and quality. Crop Health Therapy is based on the application of naturally occurring plant growth factors to allow plants to increase their genetic expression for increased crop production quantity and quality. In other words, Crop Health Therapy allows crops to adjust to any adverse climatic changes or other stress while also increasing their natural defences against insects and diseases. One type of Crop Health Therapy approach, Plant Root Therapy, uses irrigation water (from any type of irrigation system) in order to deliver the naturally occurring plant growth factors directly to the roots of plants. “The roots of the plant govern all of the growth characteristics of the above ground plant parts, Plants grow from the roots up or die from the roots up. Maintaining healthy and vigorous root growth maximizes genetic expression.” 

Research-proven Solutions: 

Plant Root Therapy applied on many different types of crops increased resistance to both insects and diseases. A recent study conducted by Texas A&M University showed bell pepper plants irrigated with  Plant Root Therapy produced statistically significant results with double the yield and triple the number of #1 Fancy Grade peppers compared to the untreated control. Pepper plants treated with Plant Root Therapy also showed an increase in plant and root vigor with twice the root mass and double the stem diameter over the untreated control. The higher and more marketable yield accounted for a $12,000 to $14,00012 increase in profit per acre - more than double the untreated control. Research also disclosed significant potential savings in insecticide applications due to the reduction of insects on treated plants. Previous field demonstrations have proven Plant Root Therapy significantly increases the percent solids in tomatoes, cantaloupes and other fruit crops. The use of Plant Root Therapy also extends the length and number of harvests, enabling producers to bring more quality product to market. Additional research on a wider range of crops is currently being conducted. Plant Root Therapy also greatly reduced the susceptibility of plants to diseases and insects. Separate studies where Crop Health Therapy was foliarly applied (Plant Leaf Therapy) also showed significant differences in insect populations. Therefore, the amount of insecticides and fungicides needed throughout the growing period may be reduced, accounting for even greater potential increases in producer profitability. strives to assist plants in developing and expressing their natural ability to obtain maximum yields and quality by minimizing stress.

12 Profit per acre based on market price of bell peppers upon harvest of the Texas A&M study.

                                     Weight of Peppers.        Number of Fancy First Grade Pepper Plants.

                 % Fancy First Grade Peppers (By Weight).     Total Number of Insects/ Plant. 

Recent Study Conducted by Texas A&M University. 

Drought Stress: 

Summer Fruit or Nut Drop: 

Control Shoot Growth (trees & vines): 

Control Fruit Abortion (cotton) at pin head square     

Increase Sugar Movement from Leaves to Seed and Storage Tissue 

Hormone Modification: 

Herbicide damage:  all crops: 

This will apply to any plants that are damaged by herbicide drift or damaged by herbicide carry- over from the previous crop. 

Hormones: 

There are Five Categories of Hormones in Plants: 

 Auxins: Mostly in the leaf tips and control the growing point to light. IAA is the major Auxin; it influences the rate of cell division and enlargement. Low rates increase while high rates retard. Roots are most sensitive at 0.02 ppb; buds follow in sensitivity at 0.1 ppm, while stems are least sensitive at 20.0 ppm. IAA regulates pholem transport as higher IAA attracts more pholem flow. Auxins move only in one direction, i.e. from the tips down and from the roots towards the tip. Auxin concentration is diluted when it moves from the growing point downwards. 

 Gibberellins: Gibberellins cause enlargement of cell walls, particularly internode cells and some fruit cells. They cause breaking of dormancy, move freely in the plant and are produced in the roots and new leaves. 

 Cytokinins: Cytokinins are produced in the root tips and are carried upwards in the xylem tissue. They lose concentration as they move towards the leaves. Cytokinins affect cell division. 

 Ethylene: Ethylene is stimulated by Auxins and can cause “Auxin like” effects. Ethylene stimulates flowering and abscission of flowers, fruit and leaves. This hormone is produced in fleshy fruit and increases ripening. Ethylene is a gas and causes senescence. It is called the aging hormone. 

 Abscisic Acid.  ABA: This hormone is a growth inhibitor and promotes senescence, bud dormancy and seed dormancy. It is produced in the leaves. 

Rooting & Fruiting Natural/ Organic Hormones in Plant Health:

Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) Auxins coordinate development at all levels of plants, from the cellular level to organs and ultimately the whole plant.

On the cellular level, auxin is essential for cell growth, affecting both cell division and cellular expansion. Depending on the specific tissue, auxin may promote axial elongation (as in shoots), lateral expansion (as in root swelling), or isodiametric expansion (as in fruit growth). In some cases (coleoptile growth) auxin-promoted cellular expansion occurs in the absence of cell division. In other cases, auxin-promoted cell division and cell expansion may be closely sequenced within the same tissue (root initiation, fruit growth). In a living plant it appears that auxins and other plant hormones nearly always interact to determine patterns of plant development.

Effects:

A healthy Arabidopsis thaliana plant (left) next to an auxin signal-transduction mutant Fruit Growth: 

Auxin delays fruit senescence. It is required for fruit growth. When seeds are removed from strawberries, fruit growth is stopped; exogenous auxin stimulates the growth in seed removed fruits. For fruit with unfertilized seeds, exogenous auxin results in parthenocarpy ("virgin-fruit" growth).

                                   GA1                        GA3               ent-Gibberellane      ent-Kauren 

Gibberellins are plant growth substances (phytohormones) involved in promotion of stem elongation, mobilization of food reserves in seeds and other processes. Its absence results in the dwarfism of some plant varieties. Chemically all known gibberellins are diterpenoid acids that are synthesized by the terpenoid pathway in plastids and then modified in the endoplasmic reticulum and cytosol until they reach their biologically-active form. All gibberellins are derived from the ent-gibberellane skeleton, but are synthesised via ent-kauren. The gibberellins are named GA1....GAn in order of discovery. Gibberellic acid, which was the first gibberellin to be structurally characterised, is GA3. There are currently 136 GAs identified from plants, fungi and bacteria. 

Much of our knowledge of the biosynthesis and molecular mechanisms of gibberellins comes from research on their role in triggering α-amylase release by the aleurone layer in seed germination.13 

13 Gibberellin was first isolated in 1935 by Japanese scientist, Teijiro Yabuta (1888-1977) from the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi.

Location, Characteristics and Occasions for Synthesis Induction: 

 Synthesized in the embryo and germinating seeds 

 Synthesized in the roots 

 Increased in production in the dark when sugar cannot be manufactured, and decreased in production in the light 

 Synthesized in apical meristems and young leaves, as well as root tips and seeds. 

 Transported in non-polar, bidirectional manner, producing general responses 

 Released in response to root, environmental, pest, and disease stress 

Effects: 

 Stimulates shoot and cell elongation 

 Delays senescence of leaves 

 Produces seed germination 

 Breaking of dormancy 

 Stimulates bolting and flowering in biennials 

 Regulates production of hydrolytic enzymes for digesting starches 

 Inhibits root growth 

 Antagonist promotes root growth and GA reverses this 

 Promotes root initiation in low concentration in pea cuttings 

 Inhibits CK bud growth on calluses 

 Inhibits bud formation 

 Inhibits leaf formation 

 Used to increase fruit size, increase cluster size (in grapes), delay ripening of citrus fruits, speed up flowering of strawberries, and stimulate starch break down in barley (for beer making). 

 Used at high concentration to promote growth of male flowers on female plants; allows production of female-only seeds 

Increases the flow of sugars and oxygen to the site of application or synthesis, through the use of stored nutrients of this kind, an increase in active uptake of the nutrients, an inhibition or senescence of inefficient older roots and the hydrolysis of their nutrients, and a change of growth strategy of the broadening induced growth patterns of the shoot induced by Cytokinin, to lengthening ones induced by GA (perhaps moving a shoot and leaves from the shade, piercing the canopy and into sunlight (speculative).

 

Cytokinins:

Nature of Cytokinins: Cytokinins are compounds with a structure resembling adenine which promote cell division and have other similar functions to kinetin. Kinetin was the first cytokinin discovered and so named because of the compounds ability to promote cytokinesis (cell division). Though it is a natural compound, It is not made in plants, and is therefore usually considered a "synthetic" cytokinin (meaning that the hormone is synthesized somewhere other than in a plant). The most common form of naturally occurring cytokinin in plants today is called zeatin which was isolated from corn (Zea mays).

Cytokinins have been found in almost all higher plants as well as mosses, fungi, bacteria, and also in tRNA of many prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Today there are more than 200 natural and synthetic cytokinins combined. Cytokinin concentrations are highest in meristematic regions and areas of continuous growth potential such as roots, young leaves, developing fruits, and seeds.14 

Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Cytokinins: 

Cytokinin is generally found in higher concentrations in meristematic regions and growing tissues. They are believed to be synthesized in the roots and translocated via the xylem to shoots. Cytokinin biosynthesis happens through the biochemical modification of adenine. The process by which they are synthesized is as follows:15 A product of the mevalonate pathway called isopentyl pyrophosphate is isomerized. This isomer can then react with adenosine monophosphate with the aid of an enzyme called isopentenyl AMP synthase. The result is isopentenyl adenosine-5'-phosphate (isopentenyl AMP). This product can then be converted to isopentenyl adenosine by removal of the phosphate by a phosphatase and further converted to isopentenyl adenine by removal of the ribose group. Isopentenyl adenine can be converted to the three major forms of naturally occurring cytokinins. Other pathways or slight alterations of this one probably lead to the other forms. Degradation of cytokinins occurs largely due to the enzyme cytokinin oxidase. 

14 Arteca, 1996; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992 

15 McGaw, 1995; Salisbury and Ross, 1992 

This enzyme removes the side chain and releases adenine. Derivitives can also be made but the pathways are more complex and poorly understood. 

Cytokinin Functions:         

A list of some of the known physiological effects caused by cytokinins are listed below. The response will vary depending on the type of cytokinin and plant species (Davies, 1995; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). 

 Stimulates cell division. 

 Stimulates morphogenesis (shoot initiation/bud formation) in tissue culture. 

 Stimulates the growth of lateral buds-release of apical dominance. 

 Stimulates leaf expansion resulting from cell enlargement. 

 May enhance stomatal opening in some species. 

 Promotes the conversion of etioplasts into chloroplasts via stimulation of chlorophyll synthesis. 

The illustration above shows the effect of cytokinin and auxin concentration on tissue culture experiments (Mauseth, 1991)

Abscisic Acid:

Nature of Abscisic Acid: 

Abscisic acid is a single compound unlike the auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins. It was called "abscisin II" originally because it was thought to play a major role in abscission of fruits. At about the same time another group was calling it "dormin" because they thought it had a major role in bud dormancy. The name abscisic acid (ABA) was coined by a compromise between the two groups. Though ABA generally is thought to play mostly inhibitory roles, it has many promoting functions as well.16 

16 Arteca, 1996; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992 

Biosynthesis and Metabolism: 

ABA is a naturally occurring compound in plants. It is a sesquiterpenoid (15-carbon) which is partially produced via the mevalonic pathway in chloroplasts and other plastids. Because it is sythesized partially in the chloroplasts, it makes sense that biosynthesis primarily occurs in the leaves. The production of ABA is accentuated by stresses such as water loss and freezing temperatures. It is believed that biosynthesis occurs indirectly through the production of carotenoids. Carotenoids are pigments produced by the chloroplast which have 40 carbons. Breakdown of these carotenoids occurs by the following mechanism: Violaxanthin is a carotenoid which has forty carbons. It is isomerized and then split via an isomerase reaction followed by an oxidation reaction. One molecule of xanthonin is produced from one molecule of violaxanthonin and it is uncertain what happens to the remaining biproduct. The one molecule of xanthonin produced is unstable and spontaneously changed to ABA aldehyde. 

Further oxidation results in ABA. 

Activation of the molecule can occur by two methods. In the first method, an ABA- glucose ester can form by attachment of glucose to ABA. In the second method, oxidation of ABA can occur to form phaseic acid and dihyhdrophaseic acid. The transport of ABA can occur in both xylem and phloem tissues. It can also be translocated through paranchyma cells. The movement of abscisic acid in plants does not exhibit polarity like auxins. ABA is capable of moving both up and down the stem (Walton and Li, 1995; Salisbury and Ross). 

Functions of Abscisic Acid: 

The following are some of the phyysiological responses known to be associated with abscisic acid.17 

 Stimulates the closure of stomata (water stress brings about an increase in ABA synthesis). 

 Inhibits shoot growth but will not have as much affect on roots or may even promote growth of roots.  Induces seeds to synthesize storage proteins. 

 Inhibits the affect of gibberellins on stimulating de novo synthesis of a-amylase. 

 Has some effect on induction and maintenance of dormancy. 

 Induces gene transcription especially for proteinase inhibitors in response to wounding which may explain an apparent role in pathogen defense. 

17 Davies, 1995; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992 

The addition of 2 mL Seed Treatment per Kg seed provides a window of opportunity for vigorous growth and plentiful produce. This provides positive feed-back to trigger further efforts and stimulates the economy at the grass-roots. This targeted intervention has ample coverage (35,000 female members of poverty stricken households).  Hormones are produced in some organs and move to other organs to change their characteristics. For instance, in wheat, early growth is dominated by Gibberellins, the middle stage by Cytokinins and the later stages by Auxins. There is growing evidence that hormone regulation in plants is controlled by a central mechanism. This is distribution of Calcium in the protoplasm. 

Hormone Interaction: 

 Stem Elongation: Here Auxin + IAA is necessary, Gibberellins can interfere with this. 

 Apical Dominance: Whenever Auxins and IAA are produced in large quantities, stem growth is greater but bud growth is strongly inhibited. Further away from the growing tip the bud  

growth is weakly inhibited. When plants are pruned, new buds will form above the apex. Bud growth can be prevented by Ethylene, which is caused by too much Auxin causing Ethylene to be produced in cells. Cytokinins can release bud growth from the effects of Auxins + IAA. 

 Root Initiation: High Cytokinin/ Auxin rates develop shoot growth. It reduces the Auxin+ IAA effect. The above ratios inhibit shoot growth of roots towards the tip. When Cytokinins are lower back from the root tip, branch roots will grow. When Auxin rates get really high, adventitious roots will appear from the stem. 

 Senescence Abscission: When flowers are fertilized they make Auxins, which prevent abscission. Fruit abscission develops when Auxin is reduced in the flower. It may be that Auxins attack Cytokinins from the roots, which prevent abscission and senescence. Evidently ABA reduces Auxin in flowers or fruit. This would increase abscission. 

 Dormancy: Abscisic Acid (ABA) promotes dormancy in seeds and buds. Gibberellins and Ethylene break dormancy. It appears that IAA inhibits fruiting branches and bud break near the growing tip. Higher levels of Cytokinins apparently modify this. It appears that ABA affects bud break all over the plant and seems to be the main group of hormones, along with Ethylene, that cause premature dying 

The hormone balance of the plant is responsible for dictating its response to environment factors. This is of prime importance and the major factor for maximum economic yield if response is adequate. Good nutrition is essential for the health of the plant but will fail to provide the desired results in case a plant is unable to use this nutrition. The size, shape and yield of a plant depend upon hormone balance. Fertilizer nutrients do affect this balance but the major factor is the climate. With changes in climate the hormone balance of the plant is altered. This is more in some varieties of plants and less in others. This is dictated by the genetics of that particular plant. It is possible to change the Genetic Expression of a plant so that it can quickly adjust to climate change. Thus it is not essential to change the basic Genetics of a plant, which, though desirable, is quite an expensive proposition. By modifying the genetic expression of a plant we can weather proof it and ensure that climate change has less impact upon yields. Since the last many years, we in Pakistan are facing the problem of vagaries in weather that is causing a serious drop in yields. Thus, it is important to introduce this alteration of genetic expression. Method: 

For example, if the soil remains dry after planting, the root will grow downwards. If the soil remains wet it will cause the roots to grow sideways. The genetic expression of root growth is determined within the first 15 days after germination. Its genetic expression does not change thereafter. Since we plant in wet conditions, we ensure lateral development of the root system. In case of root development in the upper area of the soil the plant will be less drought resistant and easily uprooted. Deep penetration will make the plant drought resistant and well anchored. It is possible to treat seed with hormones and make it “think” that it is growing in dry soil, no matter if the soil is actually wet. Our habit of introducing a plentiful supply of Nitrogen along with the seed, in the shape of Urea, is in fact harmful and wasteful. Nitrogen causes increase in root mass and does not change root direction. The same is true for growth enhancers and starter fertilizer. 

Vegetative Growth Period: 

During this period a plant builds its root system. Calcium and Boron are the major nutrients that determine initial root length and lateral branching of major root hairs. These nutrients interact with hormones such as Cytokinins; Indobutyric Acid and small amounts of IAA. To some extent, Nitrogen has an effect upon these hormones. The hormones being produced in its root system determine a plant’s disease resistance. The roots, as we have seen, are primarily developed, mostly during the vegetative stage. Thus a plant’s disease resistance is at its greatest during this stage. In case there is insufficient usable Calcium in the soil, the cell walls of the roots will be weak and result in leaking. Soil borne disease vectors will use this leaking as a “Chemical Taxi (Chemitaxi)” to hitch a ride into the plant. Over abundant Nitrogen might also cause rapid root deterioration. Secondly, plants become top heavy as more Auxins and Gibberellic Acid is produced in the growing points above ground. This causes rapid upward growth at the expense of root growth. The farmer is pleased with the apparent health of the plant but is disappointed with the yield. Top-heavy plants are also susceptible to lodging and frost damage. It is important that we bear two points in mind; one is that Nitrogen in sufficient quantities is essential to plant growth. Over abundance at a particular stage is however harmful. Secondly, there must exist an adequate supply of available Calcium and Boron in the soil. Insoluble Calcium is of no use to the plant. Pakistan’s Calcareous soils are not evidence of sufficient Calcium as commonly believed. This is due to the fact that the Calcium is inert and insoluble. Dilute Sulfuric; Hydrochloric or Phosphoric Acid can be used to solubilize the Calcium in the soil. However, this is a temporary fix as the Calcium is later converted to Calcium Sulfate. Calcium Carbonate is of no use to the plant. Calcium Sulfate is 200 times more soluble. However, Calcium Chloride and Calcium Nitrate are 2000 times more soluble. Calcium Chloride is readily available in the market and is required in lesser quantities then Gypsum. Moreover, the double positive charge on the Calcium Ion repels the single charged Sodium Ion. Thus Sodium is not allowed to clog the root system and/ or burn delicate vegetable plants. Thus Calcium in available form is introduced as well as removes the problem of Sodium. Over and above this, Calcium Chloride also stabilizes Urea and keeps it in the Ammonium form. This material is a by-product of the Marble industry and has been used by the myself with amazing results in 1998 at Daharki, District Ghothki, Sindh. Five acres of summer vegetables and one acre of experimental wheat were treated. These acres were subject to salinity to varying degrees. Vegetable germination was 98% and came to term. Wheat saw an increase of 800 Kg per acre. However wheat was also treated with hormones and given split foliar applications of Urea stabilized with Calcium Chloride. 

Reproductive Stage: 

This stage of growth triggers the most serious problems for the plant. The Carbohydrate flow is diverted from the roots towards growing points and reproductive tissue such as seed, storage tissue and fruit. Thus root growth decreases and fewer nutrients are absorbed and fewer hormones are produced. Other hormones are now effectively in control of the plant such as Ethylene and Putrescence. These all affect the hormone balance and cause early death of the plant, which in turn affects, yields. When yields are high the observation is that stalks and/ or stems are still green. This shows that the plant was still alive. If we can slow down the shift in Carbohydrate flow from the roots to the reproductive tissue, we can elongate the life of the plant. This will allow greater time for the grain to fill, or fruit to develop, as the case may be. Thus, the lessons learnt so far are that in the Vegetative stage we should help the roots to grow vigorously and in the Reproductive stage we must elongate the roots life. Hormones do this. Every day that a plant’s life is extended results in 4 % additional yield.

Movement of Carbohydrates: 

Carbohydrates and Proteins are produced in the leaves of the plant and then transferred to stalks, stems or branches. From here the vegetative growing points such as roots and shoots use them. In order to replenish the Carbohydrate supply the leaf must have adequate Potassium, Magnesium and ABA (hormone). If too much IAA (hormone) and Nitrates are present this may not be possible. Research has revealed that nutrients and hormones can be manipulated in order to induce movement of Carbohydrates out of the leaves. The only way to reduce early dying is to ensure that stalks, stems and branches are full of Carbohydrates when the reproductive stage begins. This is hormone controlled. 

Negative Growth Factors (NGF): 

Five major factors cause negative growth in plants, these are: 

 Allelopathy: When seeds are planted in close proximity, the roots of one plant cause accumulation of toxins in the neighboring plant. This results in reduction of fruitfulness of each plant. Immunity to this toxin can be induced, this results in shorter plants, stems or stalks with larger diameters; more lateral branching or suckers or tillers; more fruiting points and more fruit; much longer root systems and no tap root. These results were practically observed by me in wheat crop of the year 2000, in Mung village of Khanpur Tehsil, District Haripur, Hazara of N.W.F.P. 

 Soil Borne Diseases: Where root growth is slower, soil borne diseases are more severe. Low levels of Calcium, as earlier pointed out, cause this and result in Chemitaxi route into the plant for these diseases. Thus there is a requirement of avoiding this and also healing the plant if it is affected. 

 Foliar Diseases: These are more severe during the reproductive stage. This is caused by Ethylene and Putrescence accumulation in the plant. The plant can fight these with hormones produced in the roots and Calcium stored in the Cytosol. 

 Nematodes: Nematodes attack plant roots and introduce toxins into the plant. Hormones can control these. 

 Stress: Hot and dry climate conditions cause stress in the plant. 

This causes:

 • Disease.

 • Early dying.

 • Premature ripening.

 • Abortion of fruit or seed.

 • Poor storage or shelf life.

Hormone Control: 

All of the above negative growth factors are hormone related and are not related to nutrients. Nutrients can affect the hormones, e.g. Calcium has a positive effect and Nitrogen has a negative effect. Hormones can speed up a plant’s metabolism and result in more efficient use of chemical fertilizers. Thus with the addition of hormones, less fertilizers need to be used. Secondly, with a more complete “Diet” in so far as nutrients are concerned, we can achieve much better results. Hormone treatment of seed and plants therefore is perhaps even more important than hybrid seed development. The full genetic potential of existing seed is achieved and yields are vastly improved. It is important to note that the cutting down of Macro Nutrients, as presently being used, will result in savings that offset the expense incurred in Hormone Treatment and Micro Nutrient Supply. Secondly, improved yields will more than compensate for the money and efforts expended. Thirdly, Micro Nutrients and Hormones are naturally occurring elements and compounds. Thus, the use of these elements and compounds are environmentally safe and highly desirable. It is important to note that hormone use in plants is nowise similar to indiscriminate hormones use in Poultry Production. The hormones suggested for use with plants are only those that would be normally produced by the plant itself if it were healthy or were to receive a balanced “Diet”. These hormone Products should be registered with the EPA and must be natural. 

Innovative Cultural Practices: 

Reusable plastic trays to collect dew from the air, reducing the water needed by crops or trees by up to 50 percent. 

The square serrated trays, made from non-PET recycled and recyclable plastic with UV filters and a limestone additive, surround each plant or tree. With overnight temperature change, dew forms on both surfaces of the tray, which funnels the dew and condensation straight to the roots. If it rains, the trays heighten the effect of each millimeter of water 27 times over. The trays also act as mulching and block the sun so weeds can’t take root, and protect the plants from extreme temperature shifts. “Farmers need to use much less water, and in turn much less fertilizer on the crop,” which translates to less groundwater contamination. 

Earthworm Farms: 

The earthworms required for multiplication are the variety called "Red Wigglers" (Eisenia foetida). Earthworms will at least double their population every 3 months. First of all their bedding must be kept moist but not soggy at all times as dry bedding will kill them. Earthworms breathe through their sides, and their skin must be moist in order to take in oxygen. Next, ensure that their bins do not become acid; this can revealed by the smell. A healthy worm bed should smell like fresh turned earth, whereas, an acid worm bed will smell very sharp and sour. Turning the bedding in the piles once a week helps to keep it aerated, and also makes it possible to check on the conditions and their population growth. A protected spot out of summer sun and winter wind should be used. 

 Keep the pile moist but not soggy. Too much water can encourage fermenting of the food waste, especially in the heat, and most especially if you are using an enclosed container. 

 Make sure there's a constant supply of food. Red Wigglers will stay where there's food and will wander off and die if there's not. 

 Red worms love corn meal. It also has nutrients that seem to fatten the worms up and make them hard-skinned, something desirable. In addition, corn meal, encourages red worms to reproduce prolifically. 

 Too much food will kill them as much as too much water, because the food will ferment and make the pile acid, so feed conservatively until you see how much they will eat over time. 

 If you smell a sharp, acrid smell, stop feeding the worms immediately! Add additional bedding to dilute the food-to-bedding ratio. Turn the contents of the or pile every day for about 2 weeks to let the air help oxidize excess food and to let the ammonia/ alcohol escape. 

Recovering from disaster: 

Once in a while, it happens - you've overfed for way too long, and your entire bin is acid, or, you've forgotten to water for weeks, the and bedding is all dried out, and nearly all the worms have died. Remember that the worms have left many cocoons behind, and after you've corrected the problem, they will hatch, and you can repopulate. You can expect to harvest your first castings between 1 – 3 months. Harnessing of earthworm will be one of the major factors in the enrichment of the soil as it can produce several times as much as the present average. The casts of earthworms contain eight times as many micro- organisms as their feed! And these are the micro-organisms that best favor healthy plant growth. The casts don't contain any disease pathogens -- pathogenic bacteria are reliably killed in the worms' gut. This is one of the great benefits of vermicomposting. Worm casts also contain five times more nitrogen, seven times more phosphorus, and 11 times more potassium than ordinary soil, the main minerals needed for plant growth, but the large numbers of beneficial soil micro- organisms in worm casts have at least as much to do with it. The casts are also rich in humic acids, which condition the soil, have a perfect pH balance, and contain plant growth factors similar to those found in seaweed. There's nothing better to put in your garden! Worm populations double each month. In ideal conditions they can reproduce much faster than that: 1 lb of worms can increase to 1,000 lbs (one million worms) in a year, but in working conditions 1 lb will produce a surplus of 35 lbs in a year, because hatchlings and capsules (cocoons or eggs) are usually lost when the vermicompost is harvested. 

Earthworms take waste products and turn it into a useful product - compost.  Earthworm castings (basically their excretions) are some of the best and environmentally friendly fertilizers you get. Castings consist of 30% humus the end product of compost and are considered to be five times richer than good topsoil. It is a known fact that earthworms neutralize up to 99% of germs in less than 2 hours. Pest Control with Nutrients: 

Sucking Insects: Aphids; Mites; White fly; Thrips; Others: 

Sucking insects feed upon amines and amino acids in order to form their own proteins. Plant proteins are of no use to these insects. Since the insect’s life cycle is short it needs massive quantities of proteins in order to lay eggs. Sucking insects usually attack and feed upon new leaves. New leaves have only pholem and no xylem tissue. As such, organic compounds are not being manufactured in the new leaves; they rely upon the compounds made in old leaves. Plant sugar can give these insects diarrhea, causing sticky plants. Amines and amino acids move freely in pholem tissue. They are low on Calcium, Boron and other nutrients as they are not mobile or only slowly mobile in new tissue. When sucking insects destroy new leaves or vector in a virus the hormone balance of the plant is disrupted. This causes a major change in the older leaves. Proteins hydrolyze to amines and amino acids and become available to the sucking insects as food. Nitrogen also causes higher amines and amino acid levels in the plant. The more the nitrogen used the greater the threat. Zinc will lower the level of amines and amino acids in the new leaves. Thus, during critical periods, a foliar application of Zinc will treat the leaves. Repeat applications are required every 14 days. 

The Language of the Soil: 

As with the plant, the soil too has a particular expression of its own. The condition of the soil will determine the plant’s ability to uptake nutrients in order to go about its business of growth and reproduction. Limiting factors can only be overcome if they are understood and steps are taken to preclude their inhibiting characteristics. Soil content, condition and pH determine the plant’s ability to uptake nutrition. Sophisticated soil, leaf tissue and sap analysis will provide exact data on available nutrients in the soil at the time that the sample was taken. However, delays in providing results will result in changes that might have occurred since that time. Secondly, these tests need to be carried out with every crop, as each preceding crop will have removed so much nutrition. The expenses involved are too high to be used to optimum advantage. This is particularly true for small and subsistence farmers. The parent material, out of which the soil is derived, indicates the presence or chronic absence of nutrients. For example, alkaline soils with pH of 8.0 and above are deficient in Iron. Excessive watering, needed to leach Sodium salts, results in further depletion. Incorrect Agricultural practices can also result in depletion of nutrients. For example Copper availability in poorly aerated and drained soils is very low. The interaction of various nutrients also determines their availability. For example, high levels of available Phosphate in soils can decrease Zinc uptake by plants. This results from heavy use of Phosphate Fertilizers in crops. The interaction between nutrients can either be antagonistic or stimulating. Mulder’s chart is a graphic illustration of this complexity. Soil pH is a major factor, which determines micro nutrient availability and utilization. For example, the previously mentioned Zinc deficiency, due to excessive Phosphate, is increased when air and root temperatures are low. Light intensity is also an affecting factor. For instance, high light intensity and long days lower a plant’s requirement for Manganese. In short, the complex Soil-Plant-Fertilizer interaction needs to be understood. When corrective measures are planned, many factors need to be considered and some attempts have to be given the status of trial and error. The Rizosphere (portion of soil close to surface and plant roots) is the area from which nutrition is absorbed. It is this zone that is corrected. For example, if an acidic fertilizer such as Ammonium Sulfate is banded close to the plant’s root zone, a local acidic zone is temporarily produced. This in turn increases Zinc, Manganese and Copper availability even though the soil pH of the rest of the field remains the same. Chelated or chemically combined, positively charged Cations (Zinc; Manganese; Iron; Copper; Magnesium or Calcium) with an organic, negative charged Chelating agent. The organic molecule surrounds the positively charged metal and protects the new chelated form of Cation from being chemically tied up in the soil. However, this needs to be considered. For example, the high Iron content of organic soils will cause replacement of Manganese chelate by Iron. This will result in a build up of Iron chelate and can increase the Manganese deficiency. This is because the replaced Manganese is rapidly tied up in the soil and becomes unavailable to the plant. Method of application is also important. For instance, Copper fertilizers applied directly to organic soils will result in copper combining quickly with the soil. Here foliar application is the preferred method for best results. Foliar application of fertilizers result in rapid response. However, the effects can be short lived and multiple applications are needed. Thus planning of nutrition is most important as correction of a deficiency or toxicity, when observed, results in damage already done and yield loss sustained. It is far better to understand how and when, which deficiency or toxicity can occur and thus remove it before it affects yields. 

Recommendations: 

 Institute Appropriate Policy reforms with a view to increased productivity through more sustainable agriculture. 

 Provide Grants for Training through Learning & Doing Centers. 

 Introduce “Conglomoculture” as Individual Intensive Horticulture Production Farm Units within Overall Framework for Inputs/ Skills/ Training/ Processing/ Marketing Support. 

 Increase productivity through Integrated Pest & Nutrition Management Systems. 

 Capitalize the Rural areas through Export Development Fund for Value Added/ Processed Goods. 

 Establish Knowledge Base; Information; Assistance and e-commerce Sites in local languages.

 Provide Farmer Support and Capital Investment, e.g., Solar Pumps, Horticulture Machinery, and Cold Stores. 

 Provide incentives/ support to farmers adopting environment friendly measures and provide consumer access to rural areas 

 Fertilizer subsidy on part of GOP for unstabalized Chemical Fertilizers should be discontinued unless eco friendly measures of stabilizing and coating are not carried out. Secondly, appropriate fertilizer such as stabilized NPK MAP and MOP should be produced. Due attention be paid to eco-friendly Secondary and Micronutrients. 

 Stricter controls over Pesticides should be instituted. 

 Institute Cross-Compliance (farmers receive support if they adopt certain resource-conserving technologies for soil/ water conservation, energy pollution, organic pest control, avoid leaching of nitrates into ground water (should be obligatory for Nitrate Sensitive Zones that should be surveyed and established immediately). 

 Institute Appropriate Regulatory Framework for sustainable agriculture. 

 Identify and declare illegal to cultivate on steep slopes, riverbanks, forests and Government land. 

 Restrict use of antibiotics and growth regulators for livestock. 

 Test and report: Food Stuffs for Pesticide and Lead accumulations; Drinking water for fecal, nitrate contamination 

 Certify crop varieties before multiplication and distribution to farmers. 

 Institute Joint Forest and Grazing lands management with Local Communities. 

 Institute Water and Soil Conservation Associations, Bodies, User Groups, Districts etc. 

 Reform Agricultural Education to include Conservation techniques through Hands On Training. 

 Support Private Sector and NGO Research. 

 Consortia of Government, NGO, Farmers Associations, Trade Groups for joint planning and coordination for Regional Agriculture/ Resource Conservation Action Plans.

Mulder’s Chart: Interaction Between Nutrients: 

Mulder’s Chart is a graphic illustration of the complexity of interaction between Nutrients. Antagonism is illustrated by a solid line and stimulation by a dotted line.   

Nitrogen is 78 % by volume of dry air. It is an essential element in all-living things. Nitrogen is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids. Some Nitrogen is mined as Nitrate ores such as Chilenitre NaNO3 Dinitrogen consists of diatomic molecules

Low reactivity of Nitrogen attributable to strength of triple bond. N2 (g)                2N (g);     H      = + 940 Kj mol –1 Oxidation states of +3 and +5 in oxo-anions (+3 in NO2- and +5 in NO3) Covalency of 3, Nitrogen has no d orbitals, thus it cannot promote one of the s electrons to a d orbital. Thus covalency of 3 using the 3 unpaired p electrons.

When Nitrogen uses its lone pair of electrons to form a coordinate bond as in NH4+ and NO3- it has a covalency of 4. 

REACTANT                         NITROGEN                                            PHOSPHORUS 

Metals                                Ionic or interstitial                               Phosphides formed 

                                           Nitrides formed

Oxygen                              Some NO formed                                 Ignites, white at 35 o C 

                                          At high temp. & in                                red at 260oC, to form 

                                          Electric discharge                                  P2O3 + P2O5

Sulphur                             No reaction                                            Mixture of sulphides formed

Halogens                           No reaction                                            PX3 + PX5 formed

Hydrogen                          Some NH3 formed                                 No reaction 

                                          At high pressure

Alkali                                No reaction                                             White P (not red) reacts 

                                                                                                          To form PH3 + H2PO2 

Concentrated HNO3      No reaction                                                 H3PO4 formed 

Phosphorus: Too reactive to occur in free state. Mined as phosphate ores e.g. Ca (PO4)2 Calcium Phosphate. When heated with silica and coke in an electric furnace, phosphorus sublimes over. The two chief allotropes of phosphorus are the white and red forms. The allotropy is monotrophic, red phosphorus being more stable than white under all conditions. Oxidation states +3 and +5 in their oxo- anions. 

+ 3  PO2 – 

+5  PO3 - , PO4  3- 

Shows covalency of 3 using the 3 unpaired p electrons. 

Shows covalency of 5 by promoting one of the s electrons to a d orbital.

Waterlogging and Salinity: 

Due to intensive and continuous use of surface irrigation and instances of sub soil saline drainage over 5.7 million hectares of Pakistan’s lands are salt affected and 2.4 million hectares are highly saline according to the Soil Survey of Pakistan. In over 25% of the Indus basin the water table has risen to 2 metres below the soil surface, resulting in 40,000 hectares of land being lost annually to both these problems. In some areas it has gone up to 1 metre. The soil of 13.6 million hectares within the Gross Command Area was surveyed, which revealed that 3.1 million hectares (23%) was saline. 23% of this was in Sindh and 13% in the Punjab.  The Indus Basin was formed by alluvial deposits carried by the Indus and its tributaries. It is underlain by an unconfined aquifer covering about 15 million acres in surface area. In the Punjab, about 79% of the area and in Sindh, about 28% of the area is underlain by fresh groundwater. This is mostly used as supplemental irrigation water and pumped through tubewells. Some groundwater is saline. Water from the saline tube wells is generally put into drains and, where this is not possible, it is discharged into large canals for use in irrigation, after diluting with the fresh canal water. In the last 25- 30 years, ground water has become a major supplement to canal supplies, especially in the Upper Indus Plain, where ground water quality is good. Large scale tubewell pumpage for irrigation started in the early sixties. There are presently more than 500,000 tubewells in the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) and the annual pumpage in all canal command areas has been estimated to be over 50 BCM. According to a study, the total groundwater potential in Pakistan is of the order of 55 MAF. Major part of the groundwater abstraction for irrigation is within the canal commands or in the flood plains of the rivers. However, the amount of abstraction varies throughout the area, reflecting inadequacy/unreliability of surface water supplies and groundwater quality distribution. The quality of groundwater ranges from fresh (salinity less than 1000 mg/l TDS) near the major rivers to highly saline farther away, with salinity more than 3000 mg/l TDS. The general distribution of fresh and saline groundwater in the country is well known and mapped, as it influences the options for irrigation and drinking water supplies.  

Pakistan’s current population of 141 million people is expected to grow to about 221 million by the year 2025. The most pressing need for the water sector over this time will be the provision of the basic needs of food, power and domestic water requirements. Waterlogging and salinity pose a major threat to the sustainability of irrigated agriculture in about 30 percent of irrigated lands, which is directly related to the low efficiency of irrigation systems, which in turn is a result of inadequate irrigation management both at the system and at farm level. 

Punjab: 

About 79% of the Punjab province has access to fresh groundwater. Some 9.78 million acres are underlain with groundwater of less than 1000 mg/l TDS, 3 million acres with salinity ranging from 1000 to 3000 mg/l TDS and 3.26 million acres with salinity more than 3000 mg/l TDS. Saline waters are mostly encountered in the central Doab areas. The Cholistan area in southern Punjab is well known for highly brackish waters, which cannot be used for drinking purposes. 

Sindh: 

Around 28% of the Sindh province has access to fresh groundwater suitable for irrigation i.e. the water has less than 1000 mg/l TDS. Close to the edges of the irrigated lands, fresh groundwater can be found at 20 - 25 m depth. Large areas in the province are underlain with groundwater of poor quality. Indiscriminate pumping has resulted in contamination of the aquifer at many places where the salinity of tubewell water has increased. The areas with non-potable, highly brackish water include Thar, Nara and Kohistan. Badin District in Sindh Province has a concentration of large lakes locally known as Dhands. These interconnected shallow lakes used to provide livelihood to a large community of fishermen known as Mallahs. The Left bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) is presently passing through two of these lakes and adding large quantities of Saline water. This has resulted in the near destruction of the livelihood of these fisher folk. As the project is concentrating upon Salinity affected areas and is introducing saline resistant varities of crops, it has been determined to present new sources of livelihood in accordance with changed physical conditions of the area. In all the intervention areas focus should be upon poor and vulnerable households with emphasis upon provision of livelihood opportunities. Livestock is a major livelihood source for many of the poor with 70% HHs having possession of some kind of livestock. As such the intervention of growing saline resistant fodder crops will definitely serve to ameliorate the poverty of the most vulnerable HHs. Similarly composting through simple bioaugmented pits will also provide a source of livelihood and also serve as valuable input to the soil. Low cost; low energy Cold Stores will be emplaced to preserve the produce of the locals whether they are fish or vegetables. Any Project to overcome these problems will serve as an introduction to On-Farm and Off-Farm Development and not be restricted to Agriculture/ Horticulture alone. This is important as increased agricultural produce will provide many sources for value addition and serve as a means of livelihood to the landless and dispossessed. Modern research has identified more than 1,500 plant species that have high levels of tolerance to salinity. Some of these are able to withstand salt concentrations in excess of those- found in seawater. These plants (trees, shrubs, grasses and herbs) are major resources that can be used in the development of agricultural systems for salt affected soils. These plants can act as a form of biological drainage. In addition, there are opportunities to increase the salt tolerance of existing crops using conventional plant breeding and molecular biological approaches. Based on the situation analysis (bench mark data) report, the following levels of work and the activities as listed below would be required under the project. 

Biosaline Agriculture Technology: 

Sufficient expertise and infrastructure in the form of scientific & technical trained manpower for undertaking various interventions for economically utilizing salt affected wastelands should be fostered through intensive training. The main objective of this intervention should be to introduce Biosaline Agriculture Technology. For this purpose some of the interventions are listed below: 

Establishment of Nurseries: 

In order to provide salt tolerant plant species, establishment of nurseries is absolutely essential. The plant species will include different grasses, which may be used as forage. Salt tolerant fast growing trees having some economic value and shrubs, which can also be used as animal feed and fuel. The choice of different plant species will depend on the ecology and soil characteristics of that particular site. These nurseries will be established in participation with the community so that the sustainability and ownership of the activities are ensured. The regular training courses will be held for the farmers to enable them to grow such plant species and also become aware of different agronomic practices required for this purpose. Technical people either recruited specifically for this purpose or already available with the collaborating institutions will carry out monitoring of this activity. 

Setting up of Aquaculture Farms: 

Model Aquaculture farms should be setup at suitable sites using saline water. This activity should be based on the experience and knowledge accumulated at different demonstration sites where different fish species have been screened which are most suitable for such farms and can be fed on salt tolerant grass. The trainings and economic feasibility for such interventions should be carried out for the benefit of interested farmers. 

Support and Training for Livestock: 

Introduction of livestock will be major activity and a comprehensive support in regard to animal husbandry, disease vaccination and animal nutrition will be provided to the community so that all the salt tolerant varieties and other feeds produced on their saline land would be effectively utilized. Cultivation of Salt Tolerant Economic Crop Varieties on Marginally Saline Areas: 

A large number and variety of salt tolerant varieties of fodder vegetables and trees have been identified to be planted in these areas. Some of the species are mentioned as below: 

# Name  

1 Saline Ginger 

2 Saline Rice

3 Maize White F1

4 Maize Mixed color

5 Green Bean

6 Long Red Beans

7 Long green Beans

8 Long Big Beans

9 Long Red Beans

10 Onion

11 Cabbage

12 Chinese Garlic Chives

13 Noodles Melon

14 Cucumber

15 Red Chillies

16 Coriander Victory    

17 Chinese Coriander Yizhihua Seed  

18 Yellow Carrot S.H Seeds 

19 Red carrot S. H seeds  

20 Red Reddish 

21 Green Raddish  

22 Green and Red Turnip 

23 Green Egg Plant   

24Green Egg Plant  

25 Black Egg Plant  

26 Big Cabbage 

27 Vegetable Melon  

28 Oil vegetable  

29 Hybrid sun flower seed   

30 Big Sweet Melon 

31 Red Chilies 

32 Small Sweet Melon 

33 Shimla Chillies Medium 

34 San Melon 

35 Shimla Chillies Small 

36 White Turnip 

37 Shimla Chillies Long 

38 White Turnip H.S Seeds 

39 Green and Red Chillies Long 

40 White Melon 

42 Red and Green Shimla Chillies 

43 Qin Ju jisi tang Chinese Vegetable 

44 Beans 64 Tomato Seed 

45 Pumpkin Yellow and Redish Hybrid F1 

46 Tomato Seed 500 

47 Long Sized pumpkin yellow 

48 Tomato Kang Bing 

49 King Pumpkin Brown 

50 Gan Lan 

51 Small pumpkin 

52 Cocumber 

53 Black pumpkin Small 

54 Long Riddle Guord (tori) 

55 Black pumpkin Big 

56 Riddle Guord 

57 White Dong Melon Pumpkin 

58 Mint 

59 Black Dong Melon Pumpkin 

60 Hybrid Rice 

61 Sesame Seed 

62 Hybrid Rice 

63 Salad 

64 Hybrid Rice 

65 Salad H.C seeds 

66 Hybrid Rice 

67 Salad Qingxian 

68 Hybrid Canola 

69 Green salad H,C Seeds 

70 Hybrid Cotton Seed 5 F1 

71 Salad 72 Water Melon 

72 Salad Tianjiao 

73 Salicornia 

74 White green Salad( Celery) H.C seed 

75 Asah Guord 

76 Green Salad Shangaikang 

77 Soya Bean 

78 F1 hybrid fengang Chinese Cabbage 

79 Saline Fodder 

80 Hybrid Chinese Cabbage F1 first Wind 

81 Coriander 

82 Hybrid Chinese Cabbage of Zhenhaochi 

83 Hybrid Chinese Cabbage Lettuce seed

Technical Inputs for Farmers: 

 Provision of resources for land development. 

 Provision of implements/ equipment 

 Large scale plantation of promising salt tolerant plant species and/ or trees. 

 Preparation of technical bulletins in local languages and their wide spread distribution in the project area. 

 Evaluation of improvement in soil resource base and crop plant productivity in different ecological situations in the project areas 

 Assessment of the sustainability of the soil improvement and crop yield enhancement. 

 Performance evaluation of salt tolerant crop/ plant species introduced in different ecological situation in project areas 

 Holding of field days and demonstrations. 

 Appraisal of the degree of technology package adoption by entire farming community in the project areas 

 Economic analysis of different interventions tried in different ecological regions of the project areas  Study the impact and sustainability of soil improvement and brackish water management technologies at the study sites 

 Holding of national workshop highlighting the project performance 

 Compilation of technical and production of popular bulletins 

Site Selection: 

Project activities will be initiated in areas (within the selected districts) in consultation of local communities and in the areas where majority of farmers have small landholdings and high degree of salinity prevails in that area. 

Micro Investment Plans: 

Preparation of Micro Investment plan to devise the future plan / strategy for individual households should be carried out. These MIPS will provide information on the resources of the Community members; gap in optimum utilization of available resources; his/ her capacity to generate resources; aspiration of the members and the type of support she/he will require to increase their resource base. On the basis of that information, by assessing the potential capacity, innate capabilities and tendencies and inherent preferences of an individual, an income generation micro plan would be evolved. Special programs to train landowners and tenants to enable them to' undertake the role of technology transfer agents and linking them with the formal agricultural extension system should be planned. These should be be carried out by identifying progressive farmers and/ or activists from within the communities who will then be trained in technical skills especially regarding Biosaline agriculture technology and other natural resource management activities like agriculture, livestock, forestry, bee keeping, aquaculture etc. All these technical training would be conducted with support from the R&D institutions under all technical organizations. Some literate village youths will be identified, trained and placed as animators in the fields of enterprise development and vocational traces especially in the field of value addition of the local production and provision of services at local level. It is generally accepted that the declining trend in poverty in Pakistan during the 70’s and l980’s was reversed in the l990’s. The incidence of poverty increased from 26.6% in l992-93 to 32.2% in 1998-99 while the incidence of rural poverty (36.3%) was significantly higher than urban poverty (22.6%). Growing salinity, drought, aridity and water logging are few of the causative factors that are associated with the existence and exacerbation of large-scale poverty in Pakistan. 2000 square meters of arable land becomes desert every day. Salinity not only affects agriculture production but also leads to environmental degradation and deterioration in the natural resource base. At present, around 6.5 million hectares of land is salt affected and more than 70% of the tube wells in the country are pumping brackish water. The most vulnerable of course are the poor, as they own only 0.27 acres per capita compared to 0.84 acres for the non-poor. Any deterioration in their natural resource base like increasing salinity directly affects their productivity leaving them progressively poorer. One reason for increasing secondary salinity remains lack of adequate drainage systems in the country Repeated applications of irrigation water in haphazard way over time have lead to water logging and salinity. This "twin menace" in Irrigated Agriculture is term that is now accepted as "divine will" for which there were traditional solutions only. In the past, the Government of Pakistan tried to solve this menace by introducing large scale engineering solutions under the umbrella of SCARP (Salinity Control and Reclamation Project) at a staggering cost throughout the irrigated areas. However, the SCARP projects are unable to achieve its objectives primarily because of want of recurrent maintenance and huge O&M costs. Historically, soil salinity contributed to the decline of several ancient civilizations. Despite advanced technologies available today, every passing second, an estimated 2000 square meters of arable land become wasteland due to salinization. Millions of hectares of land are lost every year, reducing crop productivity severely worldwide. With changing times, there is now ample scientific evidence available which show alternate solutions to the problems of salinity. For example, new salt tolerant varieties of plants, fodder etc. has been developed internationally and is- available for replication. One approach that is now internationally recognized is to grow salt tolerant plants rather than reclaim the soil to grow conventional crops. This biological approach involves screening and selection of highly salt tolerant plant species/varieties from the naturally existing germplasm or from these developed through breeding, wide hybridization and other biotechnological techniques and then introducing the selected plants for increased plant establishment and productivity in salt affected. Various Agricultural Institutes are actively involved in research programs that aim to develop and introduce salt tolerant species of crops/trees and halophytic forage shrubs and to reclaim salt affected lands by using bio—drainage technique and planting salt tolerant plants. Pakistani scientists are therefore doing pioneering research to develop innovative and alternative approaches to Biosaline Agriculture. Their research aims at better use of salt affected lands and brackish irrigation water on a sustained basis through integrated use of genetic resources (plants, animals, fish and insects) and improved agricultural practices. .. However, successful research is only a part of the solution. There is a need for its adoption on a National scale. Adaptive research has never gained legitimacy because of a top down approach. Its affects on ground in terms of adoption have always been marginal and that too with the big farmers have always remained outside its purview. This requires investments in adaptive research, extension, social mobilization and capacity building and to tackle the problem in a holistic manner in which poverty reduction becomes the center piece. The emphasis therefore in the present proposal is to move away from large scale engineering solutions to participatory community based solutions in areas that are affected by salinity. The linchpin of this approach is to organize the communities and address the problem of poverty in a holistic manner through a demand responsive mechanism. The aim is to introduce technology at the farm level that enables the farmers to economically utilize the salt effected wastelands and brackish groundwater. A National Biosaline Agricultural Program should focus on small farmers and work on a National scale. It should have the capacity to target 1.2 million acres of salt affected land. It would start with organizing the farmers in the target area and working holistically, will try to reduce poverty by providing alternate options in Biosaline agriculture technology while at the same time, addressing the immediate and acute needs of the people that can help mitigate their poverty. Of the total geographical areas of 80.0 mha of Pakistan, the total cropped areas of Pakistan is 19.82 mha, of which the total cropped areas of Punjab is 11.04 mha; Sindh 5.45 mha; The irrigated land is 75 per cent (15.2) mha of the total cropped area, 19 per cent (or nearly 4.25 mha) is rain fed, while only 4 per cent is irrigated by tube well and other sources. The country’s major agricultural areas lie within the smooth plains formed naturally by Indus River and its several tributaries such as Kabul, Ihehlum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej, which flow in southern directions. In the Indus basin especially the part that flows through Sindh, the native ground water is brackish due to underlying marine geological formation. Most of Pakistan is arid to semi—arid. About 69% of the area receives less than 254 mm and a further 22% between 254 to 500 mm of rain per year. The agriculture in the country depends mainly on surface water (irrigation water from the canal system) and pumped ground water. 

Surface Water: 

Surface water development dates back to the middle of the last century and was based on diverting the natural flow of rivers. The irrigation system of today is therefore dependent on the variable flow of the Indus and its tributaries. At present, these river diversions through canals and reservoirs provides 106 million acre feet (76% of total inflow in river Indus and its tributaries) of irrigation water which supports 16 mha (million hectares) of cultivated land while the remainder 40.58 MAF (34%) flows to the sea. This represents a potential source for future development of water resources. In terms of volume, out of total water available (175 million cubic meters), 126 billion cubic meters is diverted into canals and the rest flows to the Arabian Sea. Only 52% (66 billion cubic meter) of the water diverted into canals used for plant growth due to losses through seepage and evaporation from canals, water courses and farmer’s field. The canal system has over years led to the development of salinity problem through seepage, rising water tables, accumulation of salts on soil surface by evaporation and insufficient leaching. Recent estimates show that about 6.3 million hectares of land in Pakistan is affected by varying levels of salinity and sodicity.  

Ground Water: 

The other major source is Ground water. Out of the total of 565000 privately owned tube wells used for irrigation in Pakistan, nearly 70% of these are pumping brackish water with variable degree of salinity and alkalinity. Safe ground water yield is estimated to be 55 MAF, whereas extraction is 48 MAF. Thus the remaining groundwater potential is only 7 MAF and Pakistan is fast depleting this finite resource. Technical Parameters and Technology Transfer Aspects: 

Biosaline agriculture can be defined as the use of genetic resources (plant, animal fish, insects and micro—organisms) and improved agricultural practices to obtain profits from salt affected land and irrigation water on a sustainable basis. It is a rich collection of possible systems for the use of Biosaline resources. The components of these systems will vary according to the needs of the farmers and the capabilities of the land and water. Research Although Agriculture is a provincial subject, research, especially in Biosaline agriculture technology is being done by National level institutes and Agriculture Universities which are autonomous but have provincial Governors as their Chancellors. Some of the institutions include Pakistan Agriculture Research Council; Institutes working under the auspices of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission namely Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology Faisalabad and Nuclear Institute of Food and Agriculture Peshawar. The present capacity of these institutions to have a focused program for developing Biosaline agriculture technologies and especially their adaptation and extension in the field is limited. The research institutes mentioned should be strengthened to generate and intervene research base knowledge where ever needed during in the life of the project. For this purpose financial and physical support may be provided to the institutes where deemed necessary. 

Extension: 

Extension work is the responsibility of the Provincial Agriculture Departments. The work is done by extension workers who help the farmers by providing technical assistance, inputs such as certified seeds, fertilizers, plant protection materials and knowledge about timely irrigation. The capacity of the extension department is limited and consequently the large farmers and the influential are the main clients. Farmers at large are generally ignored. Moreover, there continues to be disconnecting between the research and its dissemination by the extension workers. The situation is even worse in case of Biosaline Agriculture as this is new technology and most extension workers are unaware of it. In addition, since research is being done at the National level, the extension workers are unwilling to take it to the farmers. 

Farmers: 

Although the pace of salinization is increasing day by day, the farmers being the end users have no knowledge about the available technologies that can mitigate the looming crises of secondary salinization. This phenomenon affects small farmers with limited land holdings more acutely, leading to low yields and thereby increasing poverty.  

Market: 

Scientists at Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad had been working on the basis that soils are not just a mass of dead chemicals but is a living system harboring numerous chemical and biological processes and is constant interaction with several environmental factors. The Biosaline—sodic soils have an excess of sodium are impermeable to water have little or ino organic matter and are biologically almost dead. Based on these assumptions, Sandhu and Malik (1975) proposed a plant followed by lesser salt on such soils starting from highly salt tolerant plants followed by lesser salt tolerant plants. This strategy has been termed as Biological Approach for utilization of salt affected soils (Malik 1978). In this scheme, leptochloa fusca (Kallar grass), being highly salt tolerant to salinity (Sandhu et. al. 1981) and sodicity (Ahmad et. al. 1979) is used as primary colonizer for plant establishment and biomass production on saline lands. Soil conditions also improve in the process and less salt tolerant plants can be introduced. Introduction of a salt tolerant crop will provide a green cover and will improve the environment for biological activity, increase organic matter and will help fertility. The penetrating roots will provide crevices for downward movement of water and thus help leaching of salts from the surface. The plant growth will also result in higher carbon dioxide levels and would thus create acidic conditions in the soil that would dissolve the insoluble calcium carbonate and will help exchange of sodium with calcium ions on the soil complex. Further, the biomass produced could also be used as green manure, which will quicken the lowering of pH and result in further release of ionic calcium. The soil structure, its permeability, its biological activity and fertility could thus be restored and with extra irrigation the surface salts could be leached down (Malik et. al. 1986). A complete amelioration of the saline soil can be achieved if good irrigation water for leaching the salts is available. However, irrigation water is already in a short supply for existing arable lands in Pakistan and therefore its use for reclaiming the salt affected wastelands is not feasible. In order to overcome this problem, brackish underground water has been used for leaching the salts in the above described biological approach. The chemical and physical properties of the saline sodic soils where Kallar grass was grown for different periods were monitored. It was shown that the relative hydraulic conductivity increased which resulted in an accelerated leaching of salt downward resulting in removal of salts from the top soil layer essential for plant growth (Akhtar et. al. 1988).

In the next 10 year, in the face of rising population, 22 MAF of additional water diversions from the rivers would be needed and ground water extraction would go up by another 10 MAF. With the sweet ground water already exploited to the limit, there is a danger that the farmers would start pumping poor quality brackish water to fill the gap in the short term. In addition, due to mismanagement of water resources, inadequate presence and maintenance of drainage system, over mining of ground water, poor performance of existing irrigation and drainage systems, and the agricultural production is far below its potential. Serious side effects in the form of secondary salinization is increasing and resulting in a viscous circle of degradation of soils and environment. The implications of this however, on a long term basis in the face of already rising salinity would indeed be devastating. The permanent solution to the problem of soil salinity requires a comprehensive drainage system to control the rising water table and leaching of salts with good quality water. This drainage- leaching combination, being energy intensive and expensive, cannot be applied on larger areas. The vast areas of saline land can not be reclaimed for growing conventional crops due to several problems such as shortage of fresh water, lack of natural gradient to sea, other climatic and environmental constraints and high capital costs. Therefore, other alternate options to deal with the salinity problem are to be explored and applied. One such alternate option — the Biological Approach aims at selection of salt tolerant plants and growing selected plant species/varieties for increased plant establishment and productivity in Biosaline areas using Biosaline ground water for irrigation. Pakistan would thus have no option except to introduce the Biosaline agriculture technologies. In order to use this resource of water, it is imperative to develop crop varieties having salt tolerance. In addition, the gravity of the problem and the decreasing availability of fresh water warrant that instead of solving the problem through a project, a well concerted holistic National program is started quickly. Increase in diversion in river flows and seepage from canals, watercourses and irrigated areas have led to gradual rise in groundwater levels. Within 100 years, water table has risen from 40 to 300 meters on about 42 percent area of the Indus Basin. The situation is worst in Sindh province, where water table is within 3 meter on 57% of irrigated area. The high water table creates problems of oxygen deficiency, salt-built up in the soil profile and poor workability with soil. The Government of Pakistan is committed to eradicate the menace of salinity from the country. In this context the government launched a number of large scale projects like the Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPS) throughout the irrigated areas to combat water logging and salinity. SCARP envisaged setting up of drainage systems through tube wells, open and in some areas tile drains and increased irrigation supplies to leach down salts. The project was predominantly engineering in nature and hence proved to be very expensive in terms of operation and maintenance and could not meet the desired goals. Pakistan has some major advantages in the development of Biosaline agricultural systems. Its greatest advantage is a rich heritage of research that commenced in the 1970s and continues today. Over the last three decades, there has been outstanding work on the selection of salt tolerant trees, shrubs, grasses and crops that enable increased production from salt—affected land. International funding agencies like DIFID, BOSTID, ACIAR, UNDP, the EU and AUSAID has supported much of this work. The nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB) set up by the Government of Pakistan under the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission has been pursuing research to find alternative biological methods to deal with salinity problems with assistance form International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). This biological approach involves screening and selection of highly salt tolerant plant species/varieties from the natural existing germplasm or developed through breeding, wide hybridization and other biotechnological technique and then introducing the selected plans for increased plant establishment and productivity in Biosaline areas. The emphasis has been to economically utilize the wastelands and brackish groundwater for growing salt tolerant plants rather than reclaiming the soil to grow conventional crops. This technology is under implementation at nine countries including Iraq, Syria, Iran, Jordan, Myanmar, U.A.E., Morocco, Algiers and Egypt. In addition, PARC has also been active in developing Biosaline Agriculture Technologies by establishing field demonstration stations and also on farmer’s fields. Some donor agencies like ACIAR have been activity involved in these activities. Since the project scope had been limited in terms of funding and time span, their impact remained limited. The PAEC is currently in the process of implementing a Farmers Participatory Biosaline Agriculture Project at six different locations at a cost of Rs. I76 million with the support/funding of Government of Pakistan. In this project, the Nuclear Institute for Agriculture & Biology (NIAB) Faisalabad, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture (NIA), Tandojam, Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture (NIFA), Peshawar, and National Agriculture Research Centre (NARC), Islamabad are the main collaborating/ implementing partners. . However, it remains clear that despite these impressive achievements, there has been farmer’s field adaptation at a small scale. During implementation, it is also felt that the scale of the problem is too large and multifaceted and that a project based approach would not be able to address the issue on national scale. The current proposal suggests scaling up of the pilot and its scope and components enhanced so that a comprehensive National Program for Biosaline Agriculture is institutionalized in Pakistan. Hence the project needs to be scaled up and its scope should be expanded and changed into a National Program. A National Program to combat salinity must address the following: · 

a. Built around an agreed national strategy based on consensus between all relevant stakeholders 

b. The program must be built around multidisciplinary teams. 

c. The program must be built around a participatory process with farmers playing a central 

d. The program must demonstrate diversity according to agro ecological situation 

e. The program must have process of dissemination and technology transfer 

f. The program must develop and sustain information networks 

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has been involved in the development of Biosaline Agriculture Technology by providing assistance to NIAB for studying the movement of water and phenomena of uptake of salts by various crop species by using different isotopes. N—l5 studies have been carried out for studying the effects of salinity on the growth of the crops grown in salt affected areas of the experimental fields. The information obtained by the use of Neutron probes and isotope hydrology methodologies enabled us to evaluate the sustainability of this approach. Subsequently based on the successful demonstration of I Biosaline Agriculture at the demonstration sites, IAEA initiated an inter-regionaI project comprising of Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Morocco, Pakistan, Syria, Tunisia and United Arab Emirates in which Pakistan is taking a lead role with NIAB being declared as the Resource Centre. 

The Inter-regional project has now entered into its second phase. IAEA has urged Pakistan to develop a national level project based on Farmers Participatory Approach.

Benefits and Analysis: 

The Biosaline Agricultural Project aims to obtain better use of salt affected land and brackish irrigation water on sustained basis through the profitable and integrated use of genetic resources (plants, animals, fish and insects) and improved agricultural practices. The major benefits of Biosaline Agriculture Project are: 

 Increased economic returns to farmers by improving productivity of their salt-affected land 

 Increased cover of the soil, which reduces evaporation, decreases rates of salinization and 

 Enhances biological activity.  

 Increased reclamation of salt-affected soils.  

 Production will be achieved from 2-3 million hectares presently declared as wasteland due to high salinity and sodicity if the same technologies are adopted on the whole area. 

 Production will be achieved without reclamation. The approach is therefore more cost- effective in terms of initial investment. 

 The approach will be small scale. Implementation may start with a single acre.  

 Heavy Machinery will not be required; there will be no requirement for large loans. 

 The approach will not increase pressure on Pakistan’s scarce energy resources for managing water. On the contrary, energy will be ‘fixed’ for reuse in the form of wood and other vegetative products.

 The approach will complement and substantially improve the efficiency of the engineering approach.  The approach will improve the beauty of the environment and will help in the conservation of wildlife. 

 The condition of salt-affected land will improve with time rather than deteriorate as at present. Benefits to soil condition will occur through the addition of organic matter and the lowering of water tables. 

 The socioeconomic circumstances of poor farmers will greatly improve. 

Pothwar's Agricultural Potential:18

Pothwar plateau parallels the outer Himalayas and lies between the rivers Jhelum and Indus. It includes all of Attock and Rawalpindi districts except parts included in Murree zone , besides 75 per cent of Chakwal district, 15 per cent of Jhelum district and 20 per cent of Mianwali district. 

18 By Dr. Sardar Riaz A. Khan  courtesy Daily  Dawn, 24 May, 2002 

It is about 250km long and 100km wide with elevations ranging from 200metre along River Indus to about 900 meters in the hills north of Islamabad with an average elevation of 457 meters.  The climate of Pothwar comprises of semi-arid in the southwest to sub-humid in the northeast. The rainfall is erratic. The monsoon rains are usually accompanied by thunderstorms and occur as heavy downpours resulting in considerable surface run-off and soil erosion in the hilly areas and uplands. Most of the annual rainfall in the semi-arid region occurs during June to September period. in the Northeast about 70 per cent of it occurs in summer. The winter rains occur as gentle showers of long duration and more effective for soil moisture replenishment then the summer rains. Most of the agricultural soils have developed from wind and water transported material comprising of loess, old alluvial deposits, mountain out-wash and recent stream valley deposits. Their texture mostly varies from sandy to silt loam and clay loam comprising from poor to fertile lands. The plateau has a flat to gently undulating surface broken by gullies and low hill ranges.  About 60 percent of the land area has been highly eroded leaving the rest as a flat land which constitutes the main cultivated area. Of the total area of 1.8 million hectares, 0.77 million hectares is cultivated, the remaining is mostly grazing land. Again, of the cultivated area only 4 percent is irrigated, while 96 percent is under rain-fed agriculture. The irrigated farming system is currently practiced on a relatively much smaller scale from small and mini dams and tube-wells. A natural lake namely Namal lake is located in the extreme southwest of Pothwar. Part of water from this lake is pumped for irrigation of adjacent areas but most of it is conveyed through a tunnel through the Salt Range to irrigate lands near Mianwali.  The major rain-fed crops grown in Pothwar are wheat, gram, groundnut, millets, sorghum, oilseeds, fodders. Maize and sunflower are grown on higher rainfall areas. Vegetables and orchards are grown where access to cities and irrigation water from dams and tube-wells are available. Very little of natural vegetation remains except at a few protected and inaccessible areas which have remnants of over thorn thicket savanna, while in higher precipitation areas dense forests occur in scattered pockets. Livestock production is also one of the major economic activity in Pothwar which has over 25 percent of total livestock population of the entire barani tract of Punjab. Sheep and goats are the predominant species followed by cattle, camels and donkeys. Buffaloes are kept mostly in sub-humid areas or areas where water is readily available. Although various breeds of cattle, sheep and goats are found in this tract but it is the home of Dhani breed of draught cattle and Pothwar breed of goat. 

Suggestions:

Keeping in view the above-mentioned background, the following suggestions are made for development of Pothwar: Intensive precipitation, steep slopes and erodible soils without adequate protection have led to extensive soil erosion and reduction in agricultural productivity in Pothwar uplands. The soil conservation technology is well established, but in spite of the efforts of various concerned government departments and projects costing billions of rupees during the last 54 years, soil erosion still continues to be serious menace. The government should constitute a highly expert scientists committee to evaluate the impact of soil conservation efforts thus far, determine various constraints and recommend new effective technology based on the past experience. Targets of soil conservation and the progress be monitored strictly. Feasibility to live with those which are not economical to reclaim be studied as saline agriculture technology has been developed for those salt affected soils which are not economical to reclaim. Agricultural credit be given to farmers who are mostly small for reclamation of their eroded soils. The return of loan may be allowed on easy installments when their lands become productive. Alternately the Department of Soil Conservation may take their erosion effected reclaimable soils on lease and reclaim it. Harvesting of available surface, ground and rain water is essential for quantum leap forward in agriculture. Storing run-off water of hill torrents in small and mini dams has good potential for irrigated agriculture. The Small Dam Organization constructed a number of small dams including Papin dam in Pothwar, but the life span of these dams was reduced due to silting up by the rain and torrent water inflow from the hill slopes and uplands. The Departments of Small Dams, soil Conservation and Forestry should be made jointly responsible for management of watersheds of the existing and future dams for prolonging their life. Again, surface storage may not be possible everywhere but perennial and non-perennial rivers and streams running through Pothwar plateau carry substantial water especially during monsoon season. The feasibility of lifting this water through hydro turbines or hydra-ramp pumps be studied. A single pump may lift water up to 30 meter height on the side of river or stream having cultivable area at 60-70 liters per second besides producing 5 kw of hydro-power.  Installation of such pumps on seasonal streams may help to lift and store water in storage tanks or ponds during rainy season and to use it as supplemental irrigation to increase the yield of rain-fed crops. The drainage of the Pothwar is primarily through the Haro, Soan, Kansi, Bunhar and Kahan river system. They flow mainly in a southwesterly direction to the Indus River. As a result there is good potential of using groundwater in riverine and river plain areas of Pothwar.  Turbine wells may be installed for bringing more area under irrigated agriculture. Besides, the approach to agricultural lands in these areas is difficult and the means of communication needs to be improved for efficient production and marketing. The government should ensure that the cost of these turbine wells is reasonable as it is projected much higher than the actual cost due to corruption in our system thus causing problems for the interested farmers.  Again, indiscriminate land leveling with bull-dozers be avoided. Before land leveling operations, the depth and nature of the soil be analyzed. If the sub-soil is rocky, stony and gravelly then the surface soil should not be disturbed. Natural vegetation such as grasses, forest or orchard trees be grown on such soils to prevent their erosion. Where sub-soil is normal such as in most of the riverine areas and river plains there land levelling may be undertaken followed by the required agricultural practices to maintain soil fertility. The timely availability of improved seed, fertilizer pesticides and credit is one of the major problem of the farmers, especially the small and subsistent level farmers who cultivate larger farm area resulting in lower crop yields. The policy should be developed to provide all these inputs at the door steps of the farmers well before the sowing season of the crops. This can be done by opening distribution centres within each five-mile radius after calculating the input and credit requirements of the farmers within each distribution centre as has been successfully done in Indian Punjab. 

The Barani Agricultural Research Institute, Chakwal, is doing a good job in spite of its limitations. It should also lay emphasis on drought-related physiological research such as to stress wheat seed with supra-optimal but sub-lethal temperature for a specific period before sowing. It will harden the embryo within the seed and it will not only germinate faster but will also resist drought which is a common feature of Barani areas. Due to increasing mechanized agriculture in the Pothwar as in the rest of the country, the need for draught bulls has significantly decreased. In their place high milk yielding breeds of cattle such as Sahiwal and Red Sindhi be encouraged as their milk yield is much higher than the local Dhani cows. However, production of Dhani cattle may be continued to meet the requirements of beef and draught cattle of Punjab which still used some 500,000 draught bulls. Similarly high milk yielding Nili-Ravi and Kundi buffaloes be encouraged in irrigated areas. Nevertheless the major livestock problems in Pothwar are poor breeding, poor health, malnutrition and inefficient marketing which need immediate attention of the planners. Poultry production also has a good potential in Pothwar The availability to the farm family of high quality protein in the form of meat and eggs is one of the cheapest and best way to improve the nutritional balance of rural diets in rain-fed areas. However, in those areas not economical for commercial poultry farming due to unsuitable marketing conditions or harsh environments increasing of domestic poultry farming be encouraged. Small farmers and landless rural communities are the most vulnerable groups as both suffer from net food deficits. Both groups purchase a substantial part of their food requirements at market prices. As their income is limited and seasonal, quite often these families find themselves in a very serious food shortage situation. Sustainable development is not possible without sustainable agriculture/ food production. Environmental pollution of soil, water and air; resource depletion and nature degradation as well as socio-economic problems, are seriously impacting the carrying capacity of the land. As such there is an urgent requirement for farming systems to be redesigned and transformed into more sustainable ones. Agriculture is a multifunctional and multiple objective activity which has to supply food in sufficient quantity and quality and the supply itself must be stable, sustainable and accessible. Agriculture must provide employment and generate basic income and profit at farm, regional and national levels; strictly avoid and minimize land degradation and destabilization; pollution of natural resources, protect the great cycles of nature; as well as ensure the overall health and well-being of humans, animals, birds, insects and microbes. The conditions of the Barani (Rain-fed) areas are reaching a critical point. With the advent of Climate Change a greater change will have to be introduced in these areas in order to ensure survivability. At present a total of 27,262 hectares out of which 26,930 hectares is unirrigated is being used for growing of groundnut crop on a subsistence basis. Production is 11,042 tons or 765 kgs/ ha that is equivalent to 306 Kgs/ acre One percent increase in agricultural growth increases employment by 1.5% while farm sector employment rises by 0.6% and that of non-farm sector by 0.9%. A 1% increase in employment reduces poverty by 4.35% while 1% increase in agricultural growth reduces poverty by 6.52%.19 It has been noted that the aggregate impact of NGOs using their method of intervention is negligible and only a few NGOs in Pakistan are addressing the underlying social inequalities20 or the perceived gap of taking innovative technologies to the doorsteps of the poor. 

19 Shah (1967). 

20 Mustapha et al (2001).

A quote from an authentic INGO/ Pak Government Area Development Project is very apt to the proposed Project. “A considerable amount of improved technology is already available in Pakistan. However, these production technologies are not quite specific to the socio-economic and agro-ecological conditions of certain production systems. Technologies need to be adjusted or redesigned to make them compatible with the needs and circumstances of the farming community.”21 The report further goes on to state, “Soil erosion and moisture stress are the two major problems in the Barani tract. For these problems the following interventions have been identified: 

1. Water Harvesting.

2. Watershed Management. 

3. Supplementary Irrigation. 

4. Moisture Conservation. 

5. Biological Erosion Control Measures.22 

Further elaborating the report goes on to say: The applied research component of BVDP aims to overcome the production constraints including: 

1. Limited water resources. 

2. Degraded range lands. 

3. Low yield potential.

4. Stressful environment. 

5. Poor soil fertility. 

6. Marginal Lands. 

7. Inadequate and inefficient use of fertilizer and quality seed.23 

“Slow transfer/ adoption of agricultural technology are a growing concern among development planners, research managers and policy makers. The growth so far has been achieved in the Rainfed agriculture is mainly due to enhanced use of traditional inputs (seed and fertilizer) on wheat crop only. Rest of the agriculture activities has remained stagnant and has greater potential for improvements.”24 The importance of agriculture/ horticulture in attaining Food Security and local self- reliance cannot be over emphasized! “Like in South Asia, Poverty  in Pakistan is largely a rural phenomena and agriculture has to play a critical role in the fight against poverty in the country. Nearly one quarter of the Nation’s GDP is contributed by agriculture which employs 44% of the work force and 67.5 % of the rural population is directly or indirectly linked to it.”25 “The strategy for poverty alleviation calls for significant increases in crop and livestock productivity through substantial enhancement of output per unit of land, animal and labor. Improving agricultural production and conservation of natural resources in the project area relies greatly on the availability and adoption of appropriate technology by the resource poor farmers.”26 

21 Barani Village Development Project/ ABAD – ICARDA Applied Research Component – Annual Report 2000- 2001 (Introduction – page 1). 

22 Above page 4 Overview of the major results and achievements. Barani Soil and Water Management and Conservation. 

23 Barani Village Development Project/ ABAD – Applied Research Component – Annual Report 2000-2001 page 4

 24 Above page 79 Economics of resources use differential among dam – water users and non – user farms. 

25 Economic Survey of Pakistan (2001 – 02). 

26 Barani Village Development Project/ ABAD – Applied Research Component – Annual Report 2000-2001.

Identification of the primary target group is of vital importance. Though the project will prove of advantage to all sections of society, the primary target is the landless tenant, marginal farmers and poor females. The landless tenant or sharecropper is one of the most oppressed members of our rural society. Many surveys have revealed that being at the mercy of the landowner and unable to bargain for his rights, the sharecropper is threatened with crisis of immediate survival if he does not bow down to illegal demands of the land owner. Many peasants report that they have to provide 100% of inputs and yet surrender 50% of the produce to the land owner. This results in his gaining only 25% of the net produce. Low financial power and zero savings with no access to subsidized fertilizers, machinery and agricultural loans due to the fact that they do not themselves own land, serve to further marginalize this section of society. As they mostly have to provide 100% of the inputs they are forced to take recourse to the ‘Aarthi’ (Wholesaler) for products on credit at higher rate along with the stipulation that they have to sell their produce to ‘Aarthi’ at his rates. High dependency burdens, low health and nutritional standards, absence of equitable credit, low literacy, food inflation and death of livestock place the peasant in the high risk category. Under such conditions how is it possible to expect the peasants to use latest technologies such as laser levelers, tractors, threshers, conservation irrigation, water harvesting and latest seed as well as ecologically safe inputs? This is the main reason why our agriculture is in such a sorry state. The peasant does not have the capacity to practice modern and rational agriculture and the owner does no have the interest to improve his land. Thus, if there is to be any amelioration in the state of the poverty stricken farm labor and tenants, marginal farmers and females of the oppressed classes have to be targeted. 

Poverty EradicationPoverty Eradication: 

In order to fight hunger and combat poverty and deprivation we must release and tap the enormous potential of the people who can develop their own skills and local resources. At the very least expenditure relief in the shape of self-reliant food production and economy generation through profitable micro enterprise that is innovative in approach must be emplaced. 

Untapped Potential: 

 Semi-Arid & Temperate Produce. 

 50 % Harvest Potential Loss due to Poor Trees/ Seed; Poor Cultural Practices; Poor Plant Nutrition: 

 30 – 35 % Loss due to Poor Quality.  35 – 40 % Pre/ Post Harvest Loss. 

 Poor Market Conditions. Adopt intermediate and/or transitional technologies contributing to: 

 Generating Economy. 

 Creating Basic Production. 

 Improving Employment Opportunities. 

 Ensuring Adequate Living Standards. 

 Bringing about gradual changes from extensive systems with low productivity to intensive ones with higher productivity.  

 Reducing pressure from Natural Resources. 

 Producing an adequate Benefit/Cost Ratio. 

 Ushering in Prosperity. 

Issues to be researched: 

Due to poor soil and crop management the soils in the Barani (Rain-Fed) Areas have been greatly depleted of nutrients and organic material. Secondly, Climate change in the shape of increased heat in summers and increased cold in winters with unpredictable rainfall, inducing storms and hail stones is amply proved. This has resulted in curtailed yields and increase in diseases. Subsistence small farmers of the area are eking out a miserable existence. Adult populations are forced to seek employment outside the area since time immemorial. Latest soft technology, innovative and flexible approach and hands-on, on-ground demonstration; proving cum training and transfer will greatly impact poverty alleviation through Household Food Security. 

The issues that need to be addressed are: 

 Soil management. 

 Water Management. 

 Low-cost structures for off season vegetable production for kitchen gardens and commercial production. 

 Profitable organic farming. 

 Nutrient cycling. 

 Improved design Cattle/ Sheep Sheds/ Folds for winter/ summer protection. 

 Low-cost Cottage Industry. 

 Processing and value addition of Cash Crop. 

Scope: 

The scope of the proposed project is to formally and scientifically deploy various interventions that have been researched and tried out in various sites in rural locations of Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. Since these interventions have been tried and tested in various combinations and some on stand alone basis there is a need to integrate them and prove effectiveness in order to establish best practices for replication. The project will employ various combinations using different technologies. Each combination will be examined for optimum returns keeping in mind financial constraints and ease of replicability. A complete and integrated food security support base will emerge based on agro ecological conditions and skills of local producers. The entire proposed project is aimed at poor rural females and marginalized farmers. Due attention will be paid to the landless and ways and means will be identified to build up food security for them as well. It should be kept in mind that all our interventions are targeted to the small and marginal farmers and may not be conducive to the requirements of medium and large farmers.

Soil management through Bioaugmented Rapid Composting of Bio-Degradable Solid Waste using EM Technology and other Bacteria. 

Construction of permanent Rapid Composting Pits (2 nos.) and demonstrated rapid cycle of bioaugmented composting to protect the environment from biodegradable solid waste and enrich the soil’s organic content with compost in place of raw or even well rotted farmyard manure. The intervention has been successfully demonstrated in various locations of Qadirnagar, Nankana Sahib, Punjab; Zarda Mela, Kohat, NWFP; Mung and Mirpur Kahlaan, Haripur, NWFP, Urban and Rural Abbottabad including PMA Academy Kakul, NWFP 5 locations; SOS Village Dhodial, 2 villages in Kaghan and at Khalli Gatti plus one village and one urban site in Mansehra District NWFP as well as Kumi Kot, and 3 villages in Muzaffarabad District, AJ&K. These interventions were sponsored by PHP SDC-IC; UNDP; IRC; SRSP; Sungi; IDEALS and SPADE NGO/ INGOs. All outcomes were positive. However due to non-availability of specialized Bacteria the efforts were not sustained at Micro level mainly due to lack of uptake at Macro District/ Province and National levels. This intervention is very much suited to the proposed Demonstration area as vegetables are grown locally and large urban centers are situated in close proximity for supply of Green Biodegradable Waste apart from that present on-farm. The enrichment of the soil as well as prevention of breeding of disease vectors makes the intervention vital. 

Water Management through Waste Water Gardens for Remediation of Liquid Waste for recycling to Agriculture/ Horticulture Irrigation. 

Liquid waste pollution of surface and sub surface water has assumed alarming proportions. As such one village will be selected for installation of waste water garden. The site will be used for training purposes and will be advocated for uptake on universal basis throughout the Tehsil of Hassanabdal including the Urban Centers. The intervention is demonstrated in NARC, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad. Preliminary trials with various plants and Bacteria were undertaken in P&V Farms, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad by the PI. The intervention needs further practice and proving and will prove to be a major intervention for the entire Country provided it is properly applied. Internationally many advanced Countries have started this kind of Intervention with excellent results. The same benefit as composting of biodegradable waste exists along with disposal of effluent to irrigate field and horticultural crops in a hygienic manner. Conservation Irrigation in the light of Global Warming and Reduced Water Availability. 

Concerns regarding rapidly increasing populations resulting in increased consumption requirements alongside curtailed productivity are of vital significance to planners and governance. Reduced availability of water means that we must utilize our water resources in the most efficient manner. Conservation irrigation means using water for irrigation in a manner that makes the most efficient use and avoids waste. Many technologies exist for conservation irrigation such as drip; sprinkle; misting; bubbler and sub-soil (reticulation). We have used all of the above in various locations especially in our ‘Plasticulture’ interventions, where further recycling of water is ensured, in P&V Farms, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad; Mirpur Kahalaan and Mung in District Haripur, NWFP. The requirement is to produce conservation irrigation packages locally at least possible cost. We have utilized second hand plastic pipe buried at the root zone for horticulture sub-soil irrigation in Mung, District Haripur, NWFP with amazing results. Secondly, the process of delivering liquid fertilizers directly to the root zone through irrigation water (fertigation) has resulted in great savings of fertilizer as well as produced increased yields. ICIMOD in Nepal has produced low-cost shift-able drip and sprinkler systems. It is urgently required that similar efforts are launched in Pakistan specifically aimed at marginal farmers. This can only happen if a demonstration cum proving intervention be tried out and tested on-ground to determine the best and most cost effective intervention. 

Sub-Soil Irrigation: 

Why Install Sub Surface Irrigation? To dramatically reduce water usage - With a well designed system and the correct watering schedule you may see savings of up to 75% compared with a conventional pop up sprinkler system. Since 1965 major pipe manufacturers have pioneered the science of drip irrigation for both commercial and domestic applications. What is Sub Surface Irrigation? Sub surface drip irrigation involves the application of water to lawn via pipes, which are installed totally underground. The pipe carries evenly spaced drippers, which deliver water directly to the root zone of the turf. Irrigation below ground offers several features that provide significant benefits over conventional above ground irrigation. Sub Surface Irrigation: 

 Eliminates evaporation, thereby reducing water loss 

 Is not affected by wind, therefore eliminating the waste caused by drift, over spray and run off. 

 Does not create pools of excess water 

 Can be installed on uneven ground eg slopes, without run-off 

 Ensures water application is delivered evenly across the entire turf area 

 Enables flexible watering time. For example, your kids can continue kicking the ball on the lawn while it is being watered. 

 Has the ability to support effluent and/or grey water 

 Reduces the likelihood of vandalism to your irrigation system (lawn verges tend to be particular targets for vandalism) 

 Low pressure, low flow areas 

These benefits all mean sub surface irrigation can save up to 75% water usage compared with conventional popup sprinkler systems. 

Frequently Asked Questions About Sub Surface Irrigation 

1) How much water will I save? Savings upwards of 75% with only an additional 30% outlay on standard systems. 

2) Can sub surface irrigation be installed under an existing lawn? Yes. A narrow trenching machine or a vibrating plough can be used to install the subsurface irrigation system. These machines minimise the disruption to your existing lawn. 

3) How is sub surface applied to a new lawn? Sub surface irrigation can be installed under the ground before your new lawn is laid on top. Successful establishment of new lawn requires overhead irrigation for the first 10 to 15 days. This can be achieved by hand watering with a hose. Water restrictions limit the days and times you are permitted to use hoses for hand watering. However, when you purchase new turf, a water restriction exemption will be issued which will enable you to water every day for a pre determined time period. Make sure you check SA Water’s website for up to date information on current water restrictions and water compliant hose triggers. Your sub surface system can be used once the roots of the lawn are established.

 4) How does sub surface irrigation water the lawn? Sub surface drip tube incorporates small water drippers, which are evenly spaced along the length of the pipe. Water passes through the pipe and is released via the dripper, delivering water directly and evenly to the root zone right across your lawn. The type of soil will determine the depth at which the pipe is laid. The system can be set on a timer to deliver the required amount of water at prescribed intervals, thus enabling a water restriction compliant system, if necessary. 

5) If the pipe is laid under the ground, what stops the drippers from clogging up with dirt? Drip tubes designed to be installed underground contain drippers which have the ability to self flush, continuing to clean themselves while in operation, thus stopping the drippers from clogging.  

6) What configuration is the drip tube laid down in? The drip tube is installed in long, parallel lines, which are evenly spaced. The dimensions of the spacings can vary, depending on the soil type and size of the area. 

7) Is drip tube available in various sizes? Yes, drip tube is available in two sizes. 13mm pipe is generally used for domestic lawns and 17mm pipe is ideal for use in a commercial capacity (eg ovals, reserves). 

8) How far apart are the drippers located along the pipe? Drip tube is available with various dripper spacings, ranging from 25cm to 50cm. The type of soil will determine which dripper spacings are required. 

9) What do I need to do to maintain a sub surface irrigation system? All filters should be cleaned and the drip pipes flushed on a regular basis (approximately every 3-6 months, depending on soil type and quality of water). 

10) Can the tube be repaired if I damage it with my shovel? Yes. The damaged pipe can be replaced using a simple joiner. Joiners are available in 13mm or 17mm. 

Automatic flush valves and an air relief valve should be fitted to all sub soil applications. In-line drip tube should be snaked around to get as close as possible to plants. 

Pressure Regulators Dripline operates at a set range of water pressures. In most domestic irrigation situations the water pressure out of the tap will be too high for the Dripline to operate properly. A Pressure Regulator reduces the pressure to the level the appropriate level for the dripline.

Filters A 120 Mesh Filter prevents particles in the water from reaching and potentially blocking your dripline emitters. Trifluralin Impregnated Filter prevents roots from growing into and blocking the emitters in your dripline.

Backflow Prevention Backflow prevention stops water that is sitting in your irrigation system from running back into your mains water supply. The Australian Standard requires a Backflow Prevention device be used with irrigation system, and as a result most Local Councils also require it. A RPZ Backflow Prevention Device (including valves and strainer) is a testable and high quality (and high cost) Backflow Prevention device. It is usually only required in commercial irrigation systems or in some Local Council areas when Trifluralin Impregnated Filters are used

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